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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 

VOLUME 70. NUMBER 4 



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TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE 

NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN AND 

IN THE ATMOSPHERE 

INTRODUCTORY STUDIES ON THE CAUSE OF 
CLIMATOLOGICAL VARIATIONS 

(With Forty-eight Plates) 

BY 

BJORN HELLAND-HANSEN AND FRIDTJOF NANSEN 




(Publication 2537) 



CITY OF WASHINGTON 
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
1920 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 

VOLUME 70, NUMBER 4 



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1^ 



TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE 

NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN AND 

IN THE ATMOSPHERE 

INTRODUCTORY STUDIES ON THE CAUSE OF 
CLIMATOLOGICAL VARIATIONS 

(With Forty-eight Plates) 

BY 

BJORN HELLAND-HANSEN AND FRIDTJOF NANSEN 




(Publication 2537) 



CITY OF WASHINGTON 
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
1920 



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BALTIMORE, MD., V. S. A. 



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lAY U 1920 



CO'NTENTS 

PAGE 

Contents • iii 

Preface viii 

I. The aim of the investigation. The assembly of the observational 

material i 

II. The observational material 4 

III. Survey of the region investigated 9 

The Gulf Stream and the Labrador current. The cold 
" Wedge " southerly of Newfoundland Banks. Distribu- 
tion of surface temperatures in February. Distribution of 
atmospheric pressure and winds in January and February. 
Distribution of atmospheric temperature in February. 
Cloudiness and precipitation in February. Distribution of 
the surface temperature and the air temperature along the 
route Channel-New York in February and March-April. 
Change of temperature during the investigated decade. 
Difference between the temperature of the water and the air. 

IV. Earlier investigations of the temperature variations of the Atlantic 

Ocean 26 

O. Pettersson (26), W. Meinardus (29), H. H. Hildebrandsson 
(32), H. N. Dickson (34), G. Schott (35), W. Brennecke, 
G. Schott, L. Mecking (38), J. Hann (39), Grossmann (40), 
J. Petersen (41), H. Liepe (46), Engeler (49), W. Koppen 
(50), C. Hepworth (50), P. H. Galle (51). 
V. The variations of the surface temperature ■ 52 

Temperature variations in two degree fields of longitude and 
in ten degree fields of longitude on the path Channel-New 
York. Geographic and time distribution of the temperature 
variations in the four degree longitude fields of the region 
Channel-New York. Temperature variations in ten degree 
longitude intervals on the southerly course Portugal-Azores. 
Difference between the temperature variation in the middle 
parts of the ocean and in the parts nearer the continental 
coasts. Average temperature anomalies for the whole 
breadth of the North Atlantic Ocean and for its middle 
portion. Temperature variation in the Danish fields, 
northerly of fifty degrees north latitude. 

Variations of the surface temperatures of the coldest parts of 
the year compared with the variations of the yearly tem- 
peratures of different regions of the sea. 

Similarity of the temperature variations over great regions of 
the ocean. Difference between easterly and middle parts 
of the North Atlantic Ocean. 

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 70, No. 4 

III 



IV SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

Difference of temperature variations in the western, middle, and 
eastern parts of the North Atlantic. 

Variations in the height of the water of the coasts of the North 
Sea and the Baltic. 

Variations in the air temperature over the Atlantic Ocean. 

Possible causes of the variation in temperature in the surface 
of the sea and in the air. 
VI. Variations in individual fields in consequence of the water trans- 
ference through the regions 92 

The low surface temperatures in the years 1903 and 1904. 

Relation between surface temperature and air temperature. 

Temperature variations in the decades as shown in our isopleth- 
diagrams. 

Possible significance of the transference of water-masses by 
ocean currents with respect to temperature variations. 

Disproof of the assumption that the observed temperature 
variations are due principally to variations in the ocean cur- 
rents. 
VII. Relation between the temperature and the air pressure distribution 

over the North Atlantic Ocean loi 

Action of winds on surface temperatures 

Computation of air pressure gradients and wind direction. 

Angle between the directions of the isobars and the isotherms. 

Comparison of the values of the air pressure gradient with the 
temperature anomalies. 

The winds are the principal cause of temperature variations on 
the surface and in the air upon the North Atlantic. 

The variations in height of the water of the Baltic Sea as a 
proof of the action of the wind on the variations of the sur- 
face temperature of the North Atlantic. 

Are the winds the only cause of the great variations in the sur- 
face temperature? 

Possibility of a displacement of the ocean currents. 

Influence of winds upon the air temperature over the continents. 
VIII. The surface temperature of the ocean on the Norwegian coast is de- 
pendent on the winds 121 

Probable action of the winds on the coast water temperature 
in winter and summer. 

Relation between air pressure-gradients and water temperatures 
at Ona and Torungen. 

Relation between air pressure-gradients and air temperature at 
Ona, Torungen, and in all Norway. 

Agreement between the temperature variations in the coast 
water and in the air over Scandinavia, both determined 
by air pressure distribution. 
IX. The periodicity of the variations of the surface temperature of the 

Atlantic Ocean and of the air temperature of the continents. 130 
X. Earlier investigations on the relation between variations of solar 

activity and the meteorological phenomena on the earth. .. . 146 



NO. 4 CONTENTS V 

Temperature variations and sun spots. 

Variations in air pressure and in solar activity. 

Variations in wind and sun spots 

Variations in precipitation and sun spots. 

Variations in height of water in the lakes and rivers. 

Growth of trees. 

Cloudiness and sun spots. 

Dust in the atmosphere and sun spots. 

Theories on the relation between variations of the solar activity 

and meteorological variations. 
Supplementary note. 
XL The variations in the meteorological relations in the tropics and the 

northern regions 187 

Relation -between the temperatures of different regions of the 

earth and sun spots. 
Variations of meteorological elements in Batavia. 
Temperature variations at different stations in the tropics and 

other regions. 
Temperature variations in the United States. 
Sudden discontinuities in the agreement between the curves of 

different stations. 
Variations in different meteorological elements. 
The air temperature in Stockholm. 
Variations in the air temperature in Stockholm and in the water 

temperature on the Norwegian coast. 
XII. The relation between meteorological variations and variations of 

solar activity 211 

Periods found in meteorological variations. 

The air pressure variations and the variations in solar activity. 

Confutation of earlier authors. 

The relation between temperature variations and variations in 

solar activity. 
The temperature variations in different months of the year in 

Batavia. 
The temperature variations in different months of the year in 

Fort de France. 
The temperature variations in different months of the year in 

Stockholm. 
The temperature variations in different seasons in the coast 

waters of Norway, 
The temperature variations in different months of the year in 

the interior of Asia. 
The temperature variations in different months of the year at 

Liepe's Station i. 
Halving of the eleven-year period at Liepe's stations. 
A conclusion. 
No direct connection between variations in the solar radiation 

and temperature variations on the earth's surface. 
The yearly amplitude of the temperature in North America. 



VI SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70, 

Incoming and outgoing radiation. Dust and cloud formation. 

Proof of the failure of Blanford's hypothesis shown by obser- 
vations in the Indian Ocean. 

A common error of earlier authors. 

Evaporation and temperature. 

Air pressure distribution and solar activity. 

Air pressure difference Colombo-Hyderabad. 

Variations of the northeasterly trade wind and the surface tem- 
perature. 

The air pressure differences of the North Atlantic and the tem- 
perature variations. 

Air pressure in Stykkisholm and temperature in Stockholm. 

Variations in the air pressure gradient and in solar activity. 

Eight-month periods in the sun spots and in the air pressure 
difference over the North Atlantic. 

Two-year periods in the sun spots and in the temperature of 
Scandinavia. 

Possible one-year period in the sun spots. 

Various periods. 

Secular variations in solar activity and in meteorological re- 
lations. 

Close connection between the variations in solar activity and in 
meteorological elements. 

XIII. Conclusion 266 

Postscript 267 

Investigations on fluctuations in solar radiation by Abbot, 
Fowle, and Aldrich. 

Dr. Bauer on solar radiation and terrestrial magnetism. 

Dr. Abbot on fluctuations in solar radiation, sun spots, and ter- 
restrial temperature. 

Dr. Clayton's investigations on correlation between solar radia- 
tion and terrestrial temperature. 

Dr. Clayton's values of the correlation factor are not directly 
due to the effect of solar radiation on terrestrial tempera- 
ture, but to its effect on the distribution of pressure. 

Effect of the short-period variations of solar radiation on the 
pressure gradient and temperature at Bergen, Norway. 

Fluctuations in air pressure and sun spots studied by twelve- 
month means. 

Fluctuations in terrestrial temperature compared with fluctua- 
tions in air pressure and solar radiation studied by twelve- 
month means. 
Appendix I 307 

Temperature departures for forty-seven inland stations, 1875- 
1910. Communicated by C. G. Abbot, Director, Smithsonian 
Astrophysical Observatory. 

Bibliography 334 

Tables 340 

iW. Deviations of the surface temperatures for 2° regions of 
longitude, Channel-New York. 



NO. 4 CONTENTS VII 

2W. Deviations of the surface temperatures for 10° fields in 

longitude, Channel-New York. 
3W. Deviations of the surface temperatures for 10° longitude 

fields Portugal to 40° west longitude. 
4W. Deviations of the surface temperatures for Danish fields 

between 50° and 64° north latitude and 0° and 40° west 

longitude. 
5W. Deviations of the surface temperatures for Danish 10° 

longitude fields in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean. 
6L. Deviations of the air temperature for 2° fields, Channel- 
New York. 
7L, Deviations of the air temperatures for 10° fields of longi- 
tude, Channel-New York. 
8L. Deviations of the air temperatures for 10° longitude fields, 

Portugal to 40° west longitude. 
9'WL. Deviations of the difference : Surface temperature minus 

air temperature for 2° fields, Channel-New York. 
loWL. Deviations of the difference : Surface temperature minus 

air temperature for 10° longitude fields, Channel-New 

York. 
iiWL. Deviations of the difference: Surface temperature minus 

air temperature for 10° longitude fields, Portugal to 40° 

west longitude. 
12D. Directions of isobars and pressure gradients for 10° fields 

of longitude, Channel-New York. 
13D. Directions of isobars and pressure gradients for 10° fields 

of longitude, Portugal to 40° west longitude. 
14D. Directions of isobars and pressure gradients for Danish 

10° fields of longitude in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean. 
15D. Directions of isobars and pressure gradients for Liepe's 

stations. 
16D. Directions of isobars and pressure gradients in different 

coast stations. 
17D. Deviations of the air pressure difference between the 

Azores maximum and the Iceland minimum. 
18L. Deviations of the air temperatures in four regions of the 

United States of America. 
19M. Monthly mean of the daily variations of the magnetic 

declination in Chrlstlanla. 
20S. Monthly mean of the dally numbers of solar prominences. 
Explanation of Plates 405 



PREFACE 

In different oceanographic investigations during recent years we 
have been confronted by a series of important questions relating 
to the reciprocal action between the sea and the atmosphere. We 
have formed a plan of examining these relations more closely in 
the hope that we may thereby make some contribution to the under- 
standing of climatological variations. 

In the present work we have examined some of the purely 
oceanographic relations which are important in the problem and 
we have also made a series of investigations on the climatological 
variations themselves. These studies, however, form only the first 
and introductory part of a greater investigation, and we do not 
now endeavor to give a final solution of the problem. In a later 
continuation of the investigation we hope to penetrate deeper into 
the question, which indeed for its thorough discussion demands 
such an enormous mass of material that we have not as yet suc- 
ceeded in collecting it. 

In our endeavor to gather information relating to the Atlantic 
Ocean we have be.en so fortunate as to find in Herr Adolf H. 
Schroer an interested and helpful colleague. He has repeatedly 
made journeys to Hamburg in order personally to promote the 
arrangement of the great quantity of observational material which 
we have obtained at the Deutschen Seewarte there, as a starting 
point for our investigation. We offer to him our best thanks for 
this valuable help which he has given us. 

We also give our warmest thanks to the officials of the Deutschen 
Seewarte for the willingness with which they have put their great 
collection of ships' log-books at our disposal as well as for the 
great kindness with which they have facilitated the extraction of 
data from them. 

The Authors. 

June, ipiy. 



VIII 



TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH 

ATLANTIC OCEAN AND IN THE 

ATMOSPHERE' 

By Bjorn Helland-Hansen and Fridtjof Nansen 

I. THE AIM OF THE INVESTIGATION. THE ASSEMBLY OF THE 
OBSERVATIONAL MATERIAL 

In 1909 we found that the water-masses in the Atlantic cur- 
rents of the Norwegian sea (with a salinity of more than 35 
parts per thousand) experience great temperature variations from 
year to year. These variations, according to our view, may find 
their explanation either by different proportions of mixture between 
the water masses of the Atlantic Ocean current which passes 
through the Faroe-Shetland Channel (and also northward of the 
Faroe Islands) and those of the Icelandic-Arctic current — or, on the 
other hand, by variations in the water-masses in the Atlantic Ocean 
currents themselves before their entrance into the Norwegian sea. 

In order to decide this question, we held it desirable to study 
the possible variations from year to year in the temperature of the 
North Atlantic and their causes. Unfortunately there was not avail- 
able enough observational material for a long series of years on 
the temperatures of the deeper water layers of the Atlantic Ocean. 
It was moreover questionable if the numerous surface observa- 
tions would answer for our purpose. 

As has been shown by several investigators, the vertical con- 
vection reaches in the winter in the North Atlantic Ocean to very 
great depths (see Neilsen, 1907, p. 10, Nansen 1913, p. 18, etc.). 
Somewhat similar results were found by Helland-Hansen in the 
Norwegian sea in a February expedition in the year 1903. Altho'ugh 
apparently the vertical convection there did not reach to so great a 
depth as in the North Atlantic Ocean, yet he found equal tempera- 
tures and equal salt contents reaching very considerable depths 
below the surface. The isotherms and also the lines of equal salt 
contents in the sections show a very steep almost vertical position, 
which is partly to be explained because the vertical convection 
equalizes the differences (see Helland-Hansen and Nansen 1909, 



^ Translated from Videnskapsselskapets Skrifter. I. Mat.-Naturv. Klasse. 
1916. No. 9, with additions by the authors and by Dr. C. G. Abbot, Smith- 
sonian Institution, Washington, U. S. A. 

I 



I 



2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

p. 229) and partly by the lateral oscillation in summer and winter 
(compare 1909, p. 227), 

It was therefore to be expected that during the colder parts of 
the winter and towards the end of it the surface temperature could 
be used as an indicator of the heat condition of the ocean masses 
to relatively great depths. Accordingly one would expect that the 
yearly variations of the surface temperature of the sea during the 
coldest part of the winter would correspond to the variations of 
the winter temperature of the water layers lying underneath. If 
that is in fact so, a study of the surface temperature of the sea 
during the winter should give valuable hints on the variations of the 
temperature of the water-masses which are carried along by the 
various ocean currents. 

In our investigations of the surface temperatures of the Atlantic 
Ocean it was natural that our attention should be drawn to the 
very large collection of ships' log-books at the Deutschen Seewarte. 
Our colleague, Herr Adolf H. Schroer undertook therefore the 
task of going to Hamburg in order to make necessary abstracts 
from these log-books. In this work he received the kind coopera- 
tion of the direction and staff of the observatory, so that he was 
able to attack the matter in the best way. 

In the choice of the region of the sea to be investigated the 
observational material gave decisive indications. The choice fell 
upon the much travelled ship course between the English Channel 
and New York (see fig. i and pi. 15). The observations of the 
air and surface temperatures were collected for the period of years 
1898 to 1910 according to one degree fields. In these tables all 
the observations which could be found were entered, principally 
being those of steamships, but including those of sailing vessels. 

Further classification was made by arranging the observations 
in decades. We chose first the three decades at the end of the 
winter, from the 15th of March to the 13th of April. We found 
well-marked yearly variations which made it desirable to investi- 
gate whether these were more widely extended both in time and 
in ocean situation. 

Accordingly we assembled the observations of the air and ocean 
temperatures in the same region for the coldest season ; that is, for 
the three decades from February 3 to March 4; and we also col- 
lected a great number of observations of air and surface tempera- 
tures from a more southerly region, that between Portugal and 
the Azores. This region extended from ten degrees to forty degrees 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 3 

west longitude and from thirty-seven degrees to forty-five degrees 
north latitude (see fig. i and pi. 15). 

Herr Adolf Schroer has given us a statement on the first collec- 
tion of observational material (March 15 to April 13). From this 
statement we give the following figures, in which an air tem- 
perature and the corresponding water temperature rank as one 
observation : 

Year 189S 1899 ipoo 1901 1902 1903 

Observations 782 S78 817 825 1174 868 

Year 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 

Observations 1215 2229 2293 2382 2167 2663 2122 

— altogether 20,415 observations. 

It is clear that the numbers of the observations made before 
and after 1905 are quite different. The reason for this is that 
prior to 1904 there were generally eight o'clock morning and even- 
ing observations made, whereas after 1904 we used exclusively 
journals in which the observations were made at the end of each 
four-hour watch. 

The observational material at hand from the ships' log-books is 
very unequal. Formerly the observatory was satisfied with results 
to 1° or 0.5° but later the results were demanded to 0.1° accuracy. 
According to many reports, the observations from the meteorologi- 
cal journals were made on numerous ships, not by the officers, but by 
the seamen. That in these circumstances the estimation of tenths 
of a degree did not add to the accuracy is hardly doubtful. The 
thermometers employed were very unequal. In some journals there 
are no indications as to the accuracy of the instruments employed. 
In those thermometers for which corrections are given, we find 
them mostly only at relatively great intervals, for example at 0° 
and at 20°. For many thermometers the corrections were altogether 
too large, even in excess of 1°, hence one would draw the conclusion 
that the material is quite untrustworthy. If one should reject all 
the bad thermometers, however, he would have to throw away from 
thirty to fifty per cent of the material. We have therefore only 
rejected those journals for which thermometers were used which 
gave between 0° and 20° corrections larger than 0.5°. For all 
thermometers for which the reading was only to 1° or to 0.5° in 
accuracy the small corrections were disregarded. Only for the 
readings supposed to be of 0.1° accuracy were the corrections 
employed. 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 



II. THE OBSERVATIONAL MATERIAL 

Since the number of the observations in the i° fields of the dif- 
ferent decades is often somewhat small, we found it desirable to 
combine the results of the single observations in fields of i° lati- 
tude 2° longitude which we may call 2° fields. 

For each of these 2° fields we have taken the mean temperature 
in the two decade groups February 3 to March 4 and March 15 
to April 13, respectively. As we shall see in Chapter III, the actual 
differences in the mean temperatures over the whole region for 
separate decades are not large. But since the number of observations 
in single decades are often very small, better mean values may be 
obtained for the two decade groups by taking the simple mean of 
all the assembled observations in each of them, rather than to treat 
the separate decades independently. We have therefore always 




Figure i. The 2° fields of the observations (cross-hatched) along the 
route Channel to New York and the more southerly 10° fields between 10° and 
40°of west longitude. The circles with the numbers i to 12 give J. Petersen's 
stations (1° fields), and the cross-hatched 1° fields with the numbers Li to L3 
give Liepe's stations. 

taken the group mean as the mean of all the observations without 
reference to their division between different decades. The values 
of the surface temperature so obtained will be found in plates i 
to 14, where also is given the number of observations for each field. 
In many fields the observational material is so scanty that even 
the values for the decade groups are doubtful. For these fields the 
calculations of mean temperatures for the single decades are omitted. 
However, there is a series of 2° fields along the route Channel- 
New York, where the number of the observations is sufficient for 
this purpose. These fields are shown by cross hatching in figure i 
and also plate 15. In them, we have therefore given the mean 
values for the single decades, as well as the mean values of all 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 5 

the observations for the two three-decade intervals. The observa- 
tional material for these fields is on the whole very full, though 
the number of observations in each decade group in the weakest 
cases is less than 20. But in general and for the later years after 
1904, the numbers exceed 40 or even 50 in the decade groups. 

In the southern region (between 10° and 40° west longitude 
and 37° and 45° north latitude) the observations, as the plates i 
to 14 show, are so scattered that the mean temperatures which are 
determined for two-degree fields are very untrustworthy. For this 
region, in which the local temperature differences are comparatively 
small, we have therefore reduced the observations in larger fields 
of 2° latitude and 10° longitude. These 10° longitude fields are 
indicated in figure i and also in plate 15 by cross hatching. 

With the help of the mean values of the temperature for the 
decades and decade groups of each year, we have computed the 
normal temperatures of the surface and of the air for each of the 
chosen fields. There were in all sixty fields, forty-eight northerly 
2° fields, and twelve southerly 10° fields. In this computation we 
used only the values for the eleven years from 1900 to 1910 inclu- 
sive, because the observational material for the two first years, 1898 
and 1899, is not satisfactory. Finally the anomalies for the single 
decade and decade groups for each year were computed. These 
anomalies may be found in tables iW, 3W, 6L and 8L, where also 
the normal temperatures for the water and the air are given. 

Concerning the accuracy of the temperature observations in our 
material one must admit that this is only moderate. This remark 
holds for the temperatures of the ocean surface but more particu- 
larly for those of the air. The readings, including those of the 
water temperatures, are often given in whole degrees, frequently 
in half degrees, and even the accuracy of the numbers themselves 
is often doubtful. At single stations, the temperatures given are 
sometimes impossible, as for example, water temperatures of 
-3° C. or even -4° C. ! An explanation of these errors is hard to 
give. It appears as if at many stations the surface and air temper- 
atures were interchanged. We have cast out the obviously false 
observations. In tables iW, 3W, 6L and 8L, the computed mean 
values in such cases are indicated by bold-faced type. 

In single cases where observations have been wholly lacking or 
where the computed mean value on account of too small a number 
of observations seemed improbable, we have introduced a new value 
by interpolation. In forming this value, the temperature relation 



6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

of the decade in question or of the group of three decades to 
temperatures of neighboring- fields on both sides has been examined. 
Also the yearly change in these neighboring fields. The values 
built up in this manner are distinguished by brackets in tables iW, 
3W, 6L and 8L. 

In spite of the unsatisfactoriness of the observations, both as to- 
their number and as to their accuracy, it appears that the values 
found for the surface temperature fall in good harmony. 

In the isopleth diagrams (on the right in pis. 17-41) which 
show the distribution of the plus and the minus anomalies both 
in time and in region from decade to decade and from field to field, 
we see that in almost all cases a certain connection or system is 
found in the distribution of the anomalies. It infrequently appears 
that a minus anomaly is to be found between plus anomalies or 
vice versa. In g'eneral the march of the changes in the signs of 
the anomalies and in their magnitudes goes gradually along from 
field to field and from decade to decade. This seems to show that 
our mean values correspond well with the actual truth even for the 
single decades. Obviously this is probably, in a yet higher degree, 
true with the mean of all observations for two groups of three 
decades each. This inference is easily confirmed by the graphical 
representation of the values. 

The curves for the single fields in the eastern part of our region 
up to about 50° west longitude agree in all essential particulars 
astonishingly well with one another, and change gradually from 
field to field in a way which shows that they must correspond well 
with the actual temperature relations, and cannot be changing in 
a haphazard way (see figs. 16-19). That the agreement is less 
striking in the western part depends upon conditions of which we 
shall speak later. 

Our observational material on the air temperatures is less per- 
fect than that on the surface temperatures, for three reasons : First, 
the single determinations are ordinarily less satisfactory; second,, 
the daily amplitude, which we cannot take account of, is much 
greater than that in the water temperature and accordingly a limited 
number of air observations must give less satisfactory values than 
an equal number in the water. Besides, in several cases a some- 
what smaller number of air observations is available for the compu- 
tation of a mean temperature value, since the surface temperatures 
are not always accompanied by a determination of the air tempera- 
ture. On the other hand the observations were not infrequently 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 7 

air temperatures unaccompanied by the corresponding water sur- 
face temperatures, but such observations we have rejected. 

In spite of all this, it appears from our graphical representations 
that the values found for the air temperature must on the whole be 
fairly satisfactory in the eastern part of the region even for the 
single 2° fields. However, in order to save space we have not given 
curves of air temperature in the single 2° fields corresponding to 
those of the surface temperatures given in figures 16-19. O^ the 
other hand, we have given in figures 44 and 46 a summary of the 
surface temperature minus the air temperature for the single fields. 
These curves show such good corresponding agreement and such 
completely concordant gradual variation from field to field that they 
show both for the air temperature and for the water temperatures 
that the real facts are on the whole determined. 

In order where possible to show a comparison of the values of 
the variations which we have found in the North Atlantic Ocean 
south of 50° north latitude with the temperature variations in the 
northerly regions of this ocean, we have employed the monthly sur- 
face temperatures published by the Danish Meteorological Institute 
for the ocean north of 50° (see " Nautisk-Meteorologisk Aarbog " 
Copenhagen Nautical Meteorological Annual published by the 
Danish Meteorological Institute). 

Along the Danish steamship routes north of Scotland to New 
York, to Iceland and to Greenland, these charts give the mean semi- 
monthly temperatures for each single degree field for the interval 
1898 to 1910. The values correspond, one to the first half of each 
month, and the other to the second half. For the years after 191 1 
there are simply the mean temperatures for the whole month, but 
there is given a small figure which shows on how many observa- 
tions each of these values is founded. Unfortunately the number 
of the observations in each month for each of these fields is very 
small. This holds particularly for the months February-April, 
which we have investigated, when the number of the observations 
for each field is very often only from one to four or five. The 
temperatures for the single fields cannot therefore be regarded as 
of high accuracy. 

In order to reduce the accidental errors as much as possible, we 
have combined two by two the 1° fields together, so as to make 
fields of 2° in longitude and 1° in latitude. With the fields thus 
obtained we have the monthly mean temperatures for the interval 
from 1898 to 1910, including the month of February as well as 



8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

the second half of March and the first half of April, that is, for 
the time interval from March i6 to April 15, which corresponds 
closely with our second decade group, March 13 to April 13. We 
computed also the general mean value of the mean temperatures 
for each 2° field for February and for March- April for the years 
1900 to 1910 in the same way as we used the observational material 
of more southern regions, and we used the mean values so found as 
the normals for each field. From this we obtained the anomaly 
for each field for February and for the time interval from March 
16 to April 15 for each year. 

The anomalies so found unfortunately could not be regarded as 
very satisfactory, for even in the 2° fields they rested on too few 
observations. By combining the mean of the anomalies for all 
the 2° fields within each 10° longitude interval together, we may 
suppose that values which will correspond better with the truth 
would be obtained, since the accidental errors will thereby, at least 
in a certain degree, be eliminated. 

In this way, the mean anomalies for 10° fields of longitude along 
the route north of Scotland-New York were obtained lying within 
the zones between 40° and 30° west longitude, 20° and 10° west 
longitude and 10° and 0° west longitude. For these 10° longitude 
fields, we have used only those 2° longitude fields in which the obser- 
vations in the most years were most complete. The fields may on 
this account be a little different for February and for the interval 
March-April. They are, along with the corresponding tempera- 
ture values given in table 4W and in plate 15 (21-24) where they 
are indicated by cross-hatching. 

Along the route from the Faroe Islands to Iceland we have in 
a similar way determined the temperature anomalies for large fields 
for which sufficiently many observations were available. The fields 
are shown on plate 15 (25-27) by cross-hatching, and in table 4W 
indicated over the temperature values. Since the observational 
material in March-April was considerably richer, more fields could 
be employed in this interval than in the month of February. In 
March-April also the voyages to Greenland were already begun, and 
we could give the temperature anomalies for some fields along this 
route, also between 60° and 61° north latitude and westward from 
20° to 28° west longitude (see tables 4W and pi. 15, 28), 

Finally, there were also in the fields between 0° and 3° west longi- 
tude and between 56° and 57° north latitude, on the west coast of 
Scotland so many observations that we also determined tempera- 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



ture anomalies for this field (see table 4W and pi. 15, 29). These 
values could hardly be regarded with very great confidence on 
account of the small number of available observations. 




Figure 2. The surface currents of the Atlantic Ocean in the northern 
winter according to Schott : Geography of the Atlantic Ocean. Full drawn lines 
indicate warm currents, the dotted lines cold or cool currents, dotted regions 
are regions of prevailing side streaming, circles indicate regions of prevailing 
slack water, crosses indicate regions with up-flowing cold water from the 
depths. Curve I gives the average boundary of the drifting ice and of the 
icebergs, curve II the outside boundary of icebergs of extraordinarily cold 
years, curve III the region of the prevailing presence of Gulf seaweed. 

III. SURVEY OF THE REGION INVESTIGATED 

The greater part of our region of investigation is ruled by the 

great oceanographic phenomenon called the Gulf Stream. The 

principal features of the surface relations of the ocean currents 

are given approximately in figure 2. The Labrador current with 

2 



10 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 



its flow of cold water southwards by Newfoundland is of great 
importance, particularly for the temperature relations in certain 
parts of the investigated region. 

A feature of the hydrographic relations which is of particular 
importance to our investigation is shown in figure 3, but does not 
appear in figure 2. South of the banks of Newfoundland, in the 
region between 48° and 50° west longitude, there is a marked 
" wedge " of cold water extending southward into the Gulf Stream. 
Exactly in this region of the sea the icebergs penetrate in the 
spring and summer. Below this " wedge " the water is much colder 




Figure 3. Currents and ice boundaries near the Newfoundland Banks 
according to the steamer handbook for the Atlantic Ocean given in Schott's 
Geography of the Atlantic Ocean. The denser the streamlines of the Gulf 
Stream, the Labrador and the Cabot Streams (the last indicated by corrugated 
lines), the greater their velocity. The full drawn curves I to VI give the 
average boundary of the icebergs in June, the period of advance. The dotted 
curves VII to X from July to October, the period of retreat. The arrows in 
the same boundary indicate the direction of the advance and of the retreat 
and also by their relative length the velocity of these motions. 

to considerable depths than the water on both sides of it, for the 
very cold bottom layers are pushed up towards the surface, a phe- 
nomenon of which we learn from the Michael Sars expedition in 
the year 1910. This cold "wedge" is shown by all our tempera- 
ture charts encroaching upon the warmer water masses of the 



NO, 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



II 



Gulf Stream (see pis. i to 14). Westerly of the "wedge" one 
again finds the warmer waters of the Gulf Stream up to the neigh- 
borhood of the Continental Shelf of America, where the cold waters 
coming down from the north again produce their influence. For 
a more thorough understanding of the distribution of temperature 
of the surface of the ocean in February from 1898 to 1910 in the 
regions we have investigated (see fig. 5) we have attempted to 
draw a chart of the currents of the surface water in these parts of 




Figure 4. Distribution of drift ice and icebergs in the spring of 1903 that 
was very rich in ice, according to Schott's Geography of the Atlantic Ocean. 

the ocean. For this purpose other investigations, particularly those 
of the Michael Sars expedition of the year 1910 have been em- 
ployed. Our current chart (fig. 6) makes no pretension to do 
more than to sketch roughly the ocean current circuit in its princi- 
pal features. The progress of the water masses through the ocean 
does not proceed by any such simple lines as these schematic cur- 
rent charts represent. It proceeds much more by monster moving 
eddy currents on the surface of the ocean and in the deeper layers. 
These whirlpools are in a great measure the cause of the extraor- 



12 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'J^ 



dinary tongue-like projections of the isotherms, not only at the 
surface of the ocean but in the underlying- deeper layers. These 
come plainly into our charts (pis. i to 14) of the surface tempera- 
ture in February and March in the different years, and also in 
the chart (fig. 5) where we have endeavored to give particular 
attention to these tongue-like features of the isotherms in the 
month of February for the interval which we have investigated. 

Of particular interest are the current relations in the remark- 
able cold " wedge " which, as already has been said, penetrates 




Figure 5. Average temperatttre of the ocean's surface in February, 1900 
to 1910. 




Figure 6. A schematic representation of the currents on the surface of the 
North Atlantic Ocean according to our understanding of them based princi- 
pally upon the distribution of temperature and in part on the salinity. 

southward into the warm water masses of the Gulf Stream, between 
49° and 50° west longitude, and extending to the south of 40° 
north latitude. As is shown in our isotherm chart, figure 5, this 
" wedge " is exactly in the region of the most southerly corner of 
the Newfoundland Banks. This can be seen from the isobaths 
for 200 meters and for 1,000 meters appearing in figure 5. The 
" wedge " forms, so to say, a continuation of this corner towards 
the south, and follows essentially the course of the isobath for 
4,000 meters as it makes its tongue-like extension towards the 
southeast (see fig. i). During the Michael Sars expedition in the 
year 1910, a section of this " wedge " was taken (see Murray and 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 1 3 

Hjort, 1912, p. 298). This section extends in a northwesterly 
direction from station 65 at 37° 12' north latitude and 48° 30' west 
longitude, to station 67 at 40° 17' north latitude and 50° 39' west 
longitude. According to this section, it has the appearance as if 
the water westward of the " wedge ", between the stations 66 and 
Gy, moves approximately at right angles to this section, and then 
takes a more southwesterly direction as indicated by our surface 
charts. One may suppose that the water-masses in the deeper layers 
experience a deflection toward the right in consequence of the rota- 
tion of the earth and on that account move in a more southwesterly 
direction than at the surface. 

The oblique course of the isotherms and lines of equal salt con- 
tents in the section and consequently also the lines of equal gravity 
show clearly and distinctly that the water masses on the west side 
of the " wedge " between stations 66 and 6^ move with a great 
velocity in a southerly or southwesterly direction, and, further, 
that the velocities diminish from the surface toward the bottom. 
Between station 66, which lies in the middle of the "wedge," 
and station 65, the motion goes in an easterly or northeasterly direc- 
tion, with diminishing velocity from above downwards. North of 
station 6y, between this station and the Newfoundland Bank, the 
motion goes in an easterly direction with decreasing velocity down- 
wards. The velocities were in all these cases very great, but the 
greatest lay between the stations 66 and 6^. We explain these rela- 
tions by the consideration that the water masses of the Gulf Stream, 
which flow with great velocity along the east side of America at 
the outer edge of the Continental shelf, experience a considerable 
resistance southwest of the Newfoundland Bank partly on account 
of the cold water-masses which are brought by the Labrador cur- 
rent from the north and partly because the Continental shelf south 
of Newfoundland has a strong trend towards the southeast. In the 
under water inlet thereby formed on the edge of the continental 
shelf, there are produced many eddies of cold and warm water- 
masses whereby the water of the Gulf Stream is compelled to bend 
towards the southeast. Exactly south of the most southerly cor- 
ner of the Newfoundland Bank the current, in consequence of the 
contour of the ground and of the cold water-masses coming down 
from the north, meets great resistance. The warm current bends 
yet more toward the south and is thereby strongly narrowed and 
its velocity increased. While the warm water on the right side of 
this southerly moving current is depressed, the cold water lying 



14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 



Figure 7. Average temperature of the ocean water on the surface in Febru- 
ary as published in " Atlantischer Ozean " by the Deutsche Seewarte. The 
arrows give the direction of the isobars for January-February and the intensity 
of the air pressure gradients. The isobaths are the same as in figure i. 



NO, 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 1 5 

below it is forced up on the left side of the stream and follows on 
southward with the cold surface water. On the other side of this 
cold " wedge " there goes according to our chart a warmer oppos- 
ing stream to the no'rtheast and north. These hypotheses are 
strengthened by the march of the isotherms. 

We do not know with certainty the direction of the separate 
parts of the currents further eastward in their course through 
the Atlantic, and the current paths and eddies which we have indi- 
cated there must be regarded as somewhat hypothetical. 

Figure 7 shows the distribution of the surface temperatures in 
February in the North Atlantic Ocean according to the represen- 
tation given in " Atlantic Ocean " published by the Deutschen See- 
warte in Hamburg, 1902. The figure shows also the mean tempera- 
tures which we have found for the three February decades from 
1900 to 1910 for 10° fields of longitude in the region Portugal to 
Azores, and also for the similar 10° fields of the route Channel- 
New York. The mean of the latter is found from temperature 
values of the 2° fields previously mentioned which occur in the 
10° intervals of longitude between 10° and 20° west longitude and 
between 20° and 30° west longitude. There is clearly a good agree- 
ment between these values and the ones represented by the isotherms 
published by the Seewarte. However, we may remark that our 
values for the eleven-year period 1900 to 19 10 are somewhat lower 
in the eastern part of the ocean than those indicated by these 
isotherms. 

We have also given the observed mean temperatures for Febru- 
ary (1900-1910) for the 10° fields along the Danish routes north 
of 50° north latitude. They are mostly considerably lower than 
those corresponding to the isotherms. The isotherms for 10°, 9°, 
8° and 7° C. should accordingly probably be moved somewhat fur- 
ther to the southeast between 40° and 10° west longitude. 

On this chart (repeated in pi. i) we give the above mentioned 
mean temperatures for the time interval 1900 to 1910 for each of 
the investigated 2° fields (where there were sufficient observations) 
on the route Channel-New York as well as the corresponding mean 
temperatures in the 10° fields in the region Portugal-Azores. 
Based upon these mean temperatures, we give also the isotherm 
for 8° C. and also those for each full degree between 10° and 
16° C. As the reader will see, these do not differ in their course very 
much from the isotherms which appear on the charts issued by 
the Seewarte. In figure 5 we have endeavored to draw an isotherm 



id 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



chart for the time interval 1900- 19 lo. Here, however, we have 
not employed the mean temperatures for the single fields but have 
endeavored to determine an average form of the isotherms for each 
full degree for each year. In this we have taken account of the 
fact that these isotherms always show tongue-Hke forms, and that 
these alter somewhat from year to year. If one should compute 
isotherms from the mean temperatures fo'r the whole time interval. 




Figure 8. The wind conditions in the North Atlantic Ocean in January 
and February according to Angot's Meteorologie and Hahn's Lehrbuch der 
Meteorologie. We have also drawn the isobars for February in the North 
Atlantic. 

these tongues would more or less disappear. We have endeavored 
to determine the average position of each of these tongues, and 
although our result cannot claim great accuracy, yet we hope it 
may give a better general impression of the nature of the tempera- 
ture distribution. 

In plate 8 there is given a chart of the average temperatures and 
isotherms for the three decades, March 15 to April 13, for the time 
interval from 1900 to 1910, in accordance with our investigations. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



17 



The arrows in the chart in figure 7 and in plates i and 8 give 
the average direction and intensity of the wind (computed from 
the isobars as we shall later explain) for the months January and 
February, (see fig. 7 and pi. i) and for March (pi. 8). We shall 
return to this in chapter VI I. ^ 

In this place we may state the following principal features of 
the average distribution of the air pressure and wind in the ocean 
region investigated, as they are shown in figure 8, which is taken 
principally from Angot's Meteorology. 




Figure 9. Average temperature of the air in February according to the 
Atlas of the Deutsche Seewarte " Atlantischer Ozean." 

Near south Greenland there is an air pressure minimum. A maxi- 
mum region extends from the Spanish Inlet across over the Atlan- 
tic Ocean to the southern part of the United States. The actual 
maximum is generally found between the Madeiras and the Azores. 
Between these zones — that is to say, over the greater part of our 
investigated region- — the wind is blowing towards the east and 
northeast. The northeast trade with the opposite direction is found 
only in the southeastern part of our investigated region. The 



* The arrows do not give in fact exactly the winds, but the direction of the 
isobars. Their lengths indicate the magnitude of the air pressure gradients 
as computed according to the distance between the isobars. It is therefore 
not to be supposed that these arrows represent the actual winds either in 
direction or strength. 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



average wind velocity in the northern part of the region (Chan- 
nel-New York) is comparatively great and considerably less in 
the southeast part between Portugal and the Azores. The distri- 
bution of air pressure and wind is approximately the same in 
March and February but in March it appears that the wind is on 
the whole somewhat more westerly and somewhat weaker in the 
region we have investigated than in February. 



■ .30 . ■ . ^o. . ■ . yt/- iv 




Figure 10. The mean surface temperature (W), air temperature (L), and 
the diflference between these (W-L) for the 2° fields along the shipping course 
Channel to New York in the eleven-year period 1900 to 191 1. The full drawn 
lines are for the first decade group (February 2 to March 4), the dotted lines 
for the last decade group (March 15 to April 13). 

The average temperature of the air in February is given in the 
usual manner in figure 9. The isotherms for the air and the sur- 
face of the w:ater follow in their principal features the same course, 
although in our investigated region the water on the whole is 
warmer than the air, particularly in February. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I9 

The cloudiness varies in February along the steamer route from 
the Channel to New York on the average between 6.5 and 7.8 on a 
scale of 10. In the southeasterly part of the investigated region 
(Portugal- Azores) the cloudiness diminishes from 7 at the north- 
west to 5-4 in the southeast on the coast of Portugal. 

The frequency of precipitation in February has an average value 
during the whole interval covered by the observations between 10 
and 20 per cent along the northerly steamship route, and between 
5 and 18 per cent in the southern part of the investigated region. 
It is greatest in the northwestern and least in the southeastern por- 
tion of the region. In March both cloudiness and frequency of 
precipitation is somewhat less than in February. 

The average temperature conditions in February and March- 
April, as we have found them for the eleven-year period 1900 to 
1910 along the steamer pathway Channel-New York, are given in 
figure 10. The curves on this figure are based upon the mean 
values for our chosen 2° fields shown by cross-hatching in figure i 
and plate 15. In regions where two such fields adjoin one another 
in a north and south direction, we have given the mean value in 
our curves. In figure 10 the results for the three February decades 
are indicated by a full line and those of the second decade group 
(March 15 to April 13) by a dotted line. The curves " W" cor- 
respond to the surface temperatures "L" to the air temperatures, 
and " W-L " to the difference between the two. As the reader will 
see, the surface temperatures show a somewhat general increase 
from the east toward the west up to an absolute maximum about 
44° west longitude of approximately 14.7° C. for both decade 
groups. From there the temperature sinks very rapidly to a mini- 
mum of 9.5° to 9.8° at about 49° west longitude. Further west- 
ward the temperature increases again to a maximum of 13.6° 
to 13.9° C. between 57° and 59° west longitude, and from there 
on towards the American coast it diminishes to a new value of 
about 5° C. The great falling off at 49° west longitude marks 
with great distinctness the above mentioned cold " wedge ". When 
one studies the temperature distribution in the single years, he 
finds that this " wedge " stays almost exactly in the same spot 
throughout. From both curves, (fig. lO) for the surface tempera- 
tures, we see that only a slight difference exists between the two 
decade groups. In the eastern part of the region the difference is 
particularly small. In the central part, it is on the whole in the 
last decade (March- April) somewhat colder than in the first (Feb- 



20 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 



ruary). In the western part it behaves oppositely, for the average 
is, on the whole, colder in February than in March-April. We 
shall return to speak of the temperature distributions from decade 
to decade, but here we mention briefly the other curves of figure 10. 
The air temperature shows geographical changes similar to those 
of the water temperature. The " wedge " is very marked, with a 
temperature maximum on either side. While this " wedge " (at 
about 49° west longitude) has the same situation in the air as in 
the water, there is a small difference in the position of its maxi- 







UEKADE 








I 


n m 


y 


Jl/ 


m 


i2° 


.^ 


■^ ^ 






/^ 


H' 


' 






,^' 


/ 


iO" 


- 












■ ~^^ 


L 


^v 






9° 


• 








. . . 1 , , 




, , 1 


X; 



- 2- 



Figure ii. The curves represent the mean values for each decade (I- VII) 
for our combmed 2° fields along the curves Channel to New York. W : sur- 
face temperatures ; L : air temperatures, the scale on the right ; W-L : surface 
temperatures minus air temperatures, scale on the right. 



mum. For example, the greatest air temperature maximum of 
February lies at about 39° west longitude and is 11.8° C. and in 
March-April at 35° west longitude with a temperature of 11.9° C. 
The most westerly maximum, which is much less marked in the 
air than in the water, lies at 53° west longitude in February with 
a temperature of 9.2° C. and at 55° west longitude March- April 
with a temperature of 10.2° C. There is, therefore, a pretty well 
marked difference of temperature between the two decade groups, 
so that the February decade is considerably the colder. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 21 

The curves of surface temperature minus air temperature show, 
in general, a similar march to the other curves. First they rise 
from the east to the west, then show a well-marked minimum 
at the " wedge ", then a new rise and a sudden fall towards the 
American coast. The difference between the temperature of the 
water and the air is in the easterly part of the region rather small, 
about 1.2° C. in February and 0.7° C. in March- April. Near 43° 
west longitude the difference is 3.6° and 3.0° C, while at 49° west 
longitude (in the "wedge") it is only 1.8° and 1.4° C. In con- 
trast with the temperatures of the water and the air, this difference 
reaches an absolute maximum west of the "wedge" in 63° west 
longitude, giving in February 5.6° C, and at 61° west longitude in 
March- April with a difference of 4.2° C. 

It is apparent that the difference between the temperatures of the 
water and the air in the first decade group is on the whole consider- 
ably greater, than in the second. This is because the water reaches 
its temperature minimum considerably later than does the air. This 
feature is yet more clearly shown by comparison of the single decades. 

In order to study the developments from decade to decade, we 
have combined the observations in the northerly steamer route in 
larger fields of 20° in longitude. The results are given in the fol- 
lowing tables where our decades are designated by Roman figures. 
The temperatures are given as mean values of the eleven-year nor- 
mals for all the chosen 2° fields (see fig. i) which come within the 
20° fields above mentioned. 

In these tables we give the mean values for the three combined 
great fields. These mean values, therefore, indicate the tempera- 
ture relations for the whole width of the Atlantic Ocean from the 
beginning of February until the middle of April. They are graph- 
ically represented in figures 11 and 12. 

The surface temperature for the whole region sho'ws a long ex- 
tended minimum. The three decade values marked II, III and V, 
from the middle of February on to the second half of March are 
11.84°, 11-82° and 11.83° C. The variations of these numbers are 
less than the max'gin of error. In general one can draw the con- 
clusion that at this time a well-marked vertical convection exists. 
Great water masses, from the surface to very considerable depths, 
are being cooled, so that the variation of temperature of the surface 
is strongly damped. The consequence is that no well-marked tem- 
perature minimum can be recognized. This strongly supports our 
preliminary assumption that the surface temperatures in the second 



22 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



MEAN TEMPERATURE FOR EACH DECADE. 
A. Water. 



I 


II 


III 


V 


VI 


1 1. 19 

! 13-36 

11-59 


II. 19 

13 00 

11.32 


II. 14 . 

12.98 

11-33 


11.02 
II 75 

11-73 


41.22 
12.93 
II. 71 


12.05 


11.84 


11.82 


11.83 


11-95 



VII 



10-30° W 
30-50° W 
50-70° w 

Mean. . 

)-30° \ 
)-50° \ 
)-70° \ 

Mean 

10-30° W 
30-50° W 
50-70° w 

Mean . . 



11.42 
13.23 
12.06 

12.24 







B. 


Air. 








10-30° w 

30-50° w 

50-70° w 


9.98 

10. Q2 
6.63 


9-91 
10.29 

7-70 


9-99 

10-74 

7.10 


10.02 
10.29 

8 50 


10.54 

10.87 

9.08 


H.12 

II. 71 

9-83 


Mean 


9.18 


9.10 


9-48 


9.60 


10.16 


10.89 





C. Water Minus Air. 



1. 21 
2-44 
4.96 


1.28 
2.71 
4.22 


I-15 

■2.24 

3-63 


1. 00 
2.46 
3.23 


0.68 
2.06 
2.63 


2.87 


2.74 


2.34 


2.23 


1-79 



0.30 
1-52 
2.23 



1-35 



half of February and in the greater part of March form a trust- 
worthy indication of the temperatures of the great water-masses. 
At the end of March the surface temperature begins to rise rather 
rapidly. There soon comes about a warm layer in the water, so 
that !he surface temperature can no longer be regarded as an index 
of the temperature relations of the great water-masses lying beneath. 
The air temperatures for the whole region show a sharply marked 
minimum in the middle of February, after which they rise rather 
rapidly to the first of March; but after that up to March 20, only 
small changes occur. Later the temperature rises again very rapidly. 
The peculiar form which the curve takes, (see fig. ii-L) with its 
horizontal course through the first three weeks of March, may be 
due to several causes. One might well suppose that our mean values 
are not good enough to give a very regular curve. And it is indeed 
possible that this is a reasonable explanation, for we are consider- 
ing only a few tenths of a degree for the third and fifth decades. 
One cannot suppose that satisfactory decade values for the air 
temperature can be obtained from so short a series of observations 
as eleven years, and especially not when many of the decade mean 
values for the single years rest upon so few and so unsatisfactory 



UEKADE 
I H M T W W 



i3' 



iZ' 



il° 



ID- 



S' 



S' 



7° 



-. w 





JO-^-JiC V 



I 







.' t '' ■ 



10 20 I 10 20 I 10 



Figure i2. Curves as in figure ii for the 2° fields between io° and 30° 
west longitude, between 30° and 50° west longitude, and between 50° and 70° 
west longitude along the course Channel to New York. 



24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

observations, as is the case with our material. Nevertheless it is 
also well known that inversions of the air temperature frequently 
occur, and it not infrequently happens that in February after a rise 
of temperature, a new fall occurs, so that the decade mean values, 
even after a long series of observations, do not show a perfectly 
smooth march (see Hann 1911, p. 91). 

Local irregularities of this kind, however, in a great degree dis- 
appear when, as we have done, the final mean values for a very great 
region are considered. We have taken the mean values for not 
less than forty-eight 2° fields in our computation of the values 
which occur in figure ii. In the study of the peculiarities inside the 
three 20° fields of longitude (see fig. 12) wc find that the irregu- 
larity depends very largely upon the results of the middle fields 
which have a very marked secondary minimum in the fifth decade. 

The dift'erence between the temperatures of the water and of the 
air grows gradually less on the whole from the beginning of Febru- 
ary to the end of April (see fig. 11, W-L). In the first three weeks 
of March, however, the difference remains about equally great, 
because then both the air temperature and the water temperature 
are substantially unchanged. The difl:erence amounts on the whole 
to about 3° at the beginning of February, and not much more than 
1° in the middle of April. In this there is, however, a good deal 
of local difference. 

The tables show the difference in the temperature behavior in the 
three parts of the region as covered by the 20° fields of longitude, 
namely : the easterly part, from 10° to 30° west ; the middle part, 
30° to 50° west; and the western part 50° to 70° west — that is to 
say, west of the " wedge ". The results are expressed graphically 
in figure 12. 

In all decades the water and the air are both warmer in the 
middle part of the North Atlantic Ocean. The water is coldest 
toward the eastern part while the air is coldest toward the western 
part of the region. The difference between the air temperature 
and that of the water is greatest in the west and least in the east. 
The reason for this may be easily understood, for the middle part 
is under the control of the Gulf Stream, and is there not so strongly 
cooled. In the western part the cold water of the American coast, 
in large part the water of the Labrador current, mixes with the 
Gulf Stream water, so that the mean temperature is made lower. In 
the eastern part the water masses of the Gulf Stream have finally 
become cooled. The wind blows on the whole from America toward 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 25 

Europe over that part of the Atlantic Ocean of which we are treat- 
ing. The low continental winter temperature is particularly notice- 
able in the west, but the air is considerably warmed above the 
Gulf Stream and hence it also takes a higher temperature over the 
middle part of the ocean. This higher temperature sinks a little 
toward the European coast, but not so much as the temperature 
of the water-masses, which are cooled by outward radiation and by 
the air. Hence the difference between the temperature of the 
water and the air diminishes nearly uniformly from west to east. 
These results are distinctly seen in curves of figure lo, which relate 
to the single 2° fields. There also is seen another peculiarity. The 
relations of the cold " wedge " can easily be explained from this 
general view. Here the water comes from the north and is rela- 
tively very cold, while the air, on the other hand, comes in the great- 
est part from the west. It is already considerably warmed by the 
Gulf Stream water west of the cold " wedge ". The air tempera- 
ture therefore does not show so marked a minimum as the water 
temperature, and the consequence of this is that the difference 
between the water and air temperatures at this place is relatively 
small. 

In the easterly and middle parts of the ocean, the surface tempera- 
ture shows a minimum in the middle of March, but in the western 
part of the ocean the minimum comes toward the end of February. 
The curves for the temperature of the water (see fig. 12 W) have 
a comparatively regular course. A difference in some of the tem- 
peratures of a tenth of a degree or perhaps even less would be 
sufficient to make the curves completely regular. 

The air temperature shows in the eastern part a long extended 
minimum from about February to the middle of March as shown 
in figure 12 L. In the western part the air temperature rises rapidly 
and gradually during the whole time and the minimum comes ap- 
parently in January. In the middle part, there are certain irregu- 
larities. Here there appear to be two equally low minima, one in 
the middle of February and one in the middle of March, with 
a well marked secondary maximum at about the first of March. In 
agreement with this the difference between the temperatures of 
the water and the air also shows irregularities (see fig. 12 W-L). 
If our mean values really correspond to the truth for this eleven- 
year period, the cause of this irregularity is probably that the above 
mentioned secondary depression in the air temperature is not 
smoothed out because there is not a sufifiicientlv large number of 



26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

the years of observation. It is also apparent that the mean tempera- 
ture of the air in the two other regions, the easterly and the westerly, 
in the third decade, that is from February 23 to March 4, is higher 
than would be expected. This feature may be recognized by the 
consideration of the curves for the whole Atlantic Ocean and most 
plainly appears in figure 11 (W, L and W-L)_ from the horizontal 
march of the curves for the time from March i to 20. 

IV. EARLIER INVESTIGATIONS OF THE TEMPERATURE 
VARIATIONS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN 

It has long since been recognized Avhat a decisive thermal influ- 
ence the so-called Gulf Stream has on the temperature behavior of 
the North Atlantic Ocean as well as on the climate of the west 
and northwest Europe. Hence it was apparent that a change in 
this ocean current would be of importance on the temperature of 
the Northeast Atlantic Ocean and the climatological relations of 
western Europe. 

Prof. Otto Pettersson, in his Avell-known book on the relations 
between hydrographic and meteorological phenomena, (1896) made 
the first important investigations in order to determine the exact 
relation between the variations of the temperature of the ocean 
and the relations of air temperature and climate of Scandinavia 
and north Europe. 

In the lack of continuous temperature measurements of the 
water-masses of the Gulf Stream itself, he took as the starting 
point of his investigation the temperature of the ocean at the sur- 
face near the lighthouses Utsire, Helliso and Ona on the Norwegian 
coast, where observations for a long period of years were avail- 
able. In this he assumed that the variations in the temperature 
of the coast water depended directly on changes in the water-masses 
of the Gulf Stream w^hich, now cooler, now warmer, are driven 
upon the coast. This assumption is, however, as we shall show later, 
not correct. The coast water in which these temperature measure- 
ments at the lighthouses were made is far different from the water 
that the Gulf Stream brings. As will later be shown, the surface 
temperatures, for example at Ona lighthouse, particularly in the 
winter months of January and February which Pettersson employed, 
depend completely on the relations of the winds along the coast 
which naturally also affect the wind relations to the temperature 
of Scandinavia, so that by this common influence a dependence 
between the two is brought about. As we shall see later, these 



•NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 2/ 

wind relations, that is to say, the distribution of the atmospheric 
pressure, exert a strong" influence upon the variations in the sur- 
face temperatures of the Gulf Stream. It is quite another ques- 
tion as to whether these variations in the distribution of the air 
pressure in a greater or less degree depend upon the variations of 
the ocean currents and the masses of water brought on by them. 

An important proof is furnished by Pettersson himself, for he 
showed a tendency toward continuity during long intervals of 
time in the variations of temperature both of the surface of the 
sea and of the air, so that anomalies of the monthly mean tempera- 
tures have exactly the same sign in a long succession of months. 
However, twice during the year, in the months of May- June and 
October-November there is a strong tendency to a break in this 
continuity. He showed further that the march of the anomalies in 
general from year to year shows a tendency to alternating rise 
and fall of the mean temperatures. 

In later researches, " On the probability of periodic and non- 
periodic variations in the Atlantic Ocean currents and their rela- 
tions to meteorological and biological phenomena" (1905, 1906), 
Pettersson attempted to show that a great yearly pulsation occurs 
in the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the warm 
Atlantic currents of the Norwegian sea, whose flows experience a 
strong minimum in the spring and a powerful maximum in autumn 
and towards the end of the year. This, as we understand it, he con- 
ceives to take place about simultaneously over the whole stretch 
of the ocean between the Azores and the Bering Sea. The cause 
of this pulsation Pettersson finds in the yearly melting of the ice 
as well in the antarctic as in the northern oceans. He conceives 
this action of the melting" ice upon the different parts of the oceans 
of the world to be propagated by a series of peculiar deep waves. 
His conclusion appears to us in these points very doubtful and 
difficult to understand. We cannot find that the trustworthy obser- 
vations which are at hand verify the assumption of a yearly pulsation 
of the Gulf Stream such as he proposes.^ 



^Pettersson has devoted a long discussion (1905) to the dynamic conditions 
in the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean and their relations to these varia- 
tions. According to our view he has been misled by neglecting the rotation 
of the earth. On this account he omitted to note that the dynamic sections with 
their solenoids and their outward and inwardly directed forces, are able to 
establish comparatively stationary conditions in the water-masses which have 
their movement more or less at right angles to the direction of the sections 
and which are in lateral equilibrium. As an example of this conception may 



28 . SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. /O 

Pettersson also tried to show that there are great variations from 
year to year in the Atlantic current of the Norwegian sea. These 
he regarded provisionally as non-periodic and also to be at least 
partially explained by variations in the melting of the ice. We 
have at several earlier opportunities taken issue with this ice-melt- 
ing theory, and we will not go into it again at this place. 

In his later works (19 12, 1914) Pettersson believes himself to 
have shown that in the course of long intervals great changes in 
the climate of the earth take place (similar to those which Hunt- 
ington maintains) and also in the circulation of the oceans. These 
changes he regards as in greater part periodic and due to cosmic 
causes. We should be led too far if we should undertake to examine 
these studies. 

be cited the condition of the Atlantic Ocean within and north of the Sargasso 
Sea. He says (190S, p. 27) : "Between 26° and 30° north latitude, the water 
has an upward tendency, and on the surface the water flows on the one hand 
toward the equator and on the other toward the North Atlantic. The velocity 
in the latter direction is the largest, 47 cm. per second, that has been observed 
in the Atlantic Ocean. According to my view this lively water circulation is 
to be regarded as due to the influence of the melting of ice near Newfound- 
land. This important phenomenon for ocean circulation acts periodically with 
the season of the year. On account of the influence of the seasons upon the 
melting of the ice and the direction of the wind, the pressure and density 
distribution in the ocean can have no stationary condition." These conse- 
quences he bases upon Schott's longitude section through the Atlantic Ocean 
along the meridian of 30° east, which he has converted into a dynamic section. 
The steepness of the curves (of isotherms and lines of equal density) in this 
section north of the zone between 20° and 30° north latitude is obviously in 
a large part due to the eastward directed motion of the water masses of the 
Gulf Stream upon the north side of the Sargasso Sea. From this very steep- 
ness it results that the velocity of the currents is so large. By depressions or 
elevations of the lighter surface water on the right hand side of the ocean 
currents in the northern hemisphere (therefore on the inner side of the anti- 
cyclonic motion as in the Sargasso Sea) there is produced a heaping up,— that 
is, a depression of curves of the warmer surface water in the middle of this 
sea which Schott's section very plainly shows. 

The " heaping up " of the ground water at the equator as well as the " cold 
up-rush " on the northwest coast of Africa and the " cold wall " on the east 
coast of North America, which according to Pettersson are due to hindrances 
in the motion of the ground water, are really examples of more or less sta- 
tionary conditions which are produced because the colder lower layers at the 
left side of the ocean currents are pushed up in consequence of the operation 
of the rotation of the earth. The " cold wall " lies on the left side of the Gulf 
Stream along the east coast of North America. The " cold up-rush " on the 
northwest coast of Africa lies on the left hand of the Canary current and the 
" heaping up " of the ground water on the north side of the equator lies along 
the left side of the northerly equatorial current. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 2C) 

Especially Otto Pettersson's first cited work, " On the Relation 
Between Hydrographic and Meteorological Phenomena " have led 
to several valuable investigations on the change of ocean circula- 
tion and climate. As the most important among them we must 
mention at this point that of Prof. Dr. Wilhelm Meinardus. 

After he had investigated the "Dependence of the Winter Cli- 
mate in Middle and Northwestern Europe on the Gulf Stream " 
(1898) and the dependence between the variations in the air tem- 
perature on the Norwegian west coast at Christiansand in the 
autumn and the crop production in north Germany in the following 
summer, Meinardus, particularly in his work, " On the variations 
of the North Atlantic circulation and their consequences" (1904 
and 1905), studied the dependence between the temperature varia- 
tions in the ocean on the coast of Jutland and Norway and the 
distribution of air pressure over the North Atlantic Ocean. As an 
indicator o'f the last-named relation he used the air pressure dif- 
ference in the successive years between Toronto, Canada, and Ivig- 
tut in southwest Greenland for the years 1875 to 1900. Also that 
between Ponta Delgada on the Azores and Stykkisholm, Iceland, 
for the years 1866 to 1900, and also between Copenhagen and Styk- 
kisholm in the years i860 to 1909. Furthermore, he compared 
these results with the ice transportation by the Labrador current 
near Newfoundland. 

Meinardus starts with the assumption that variations in the atmos- 
pheric pressure differences between Greenland and Iceland on the 
one side, and Canada, the Azores and Copenhagen on the other, 
correspond to similar alterations in the circulation in the ocean. 
Great air pressure differences correspond to increased ocean circu- 
lation and vice versa. He further supposes that when the Atlantic 
circulation in this way is increased, " it produces on oppsite shores 
of the Atlantic opposite influences on the transportation of heat by 
the ocean currents. By the acceleration of the Gulf Stream the tem- 
perature of the western coasts of Europe is increased, while by a 
simultaneous acceleration of the Labrador current its transportation 
of ice is increased and most probably the European temperatures are 
thereby diminished. With decreased water circulation opposite 
tendencies prevail." Meinardus takes no account of the displace- 
ments in the positions of the great air pressure maxima and minima 
or on the variations in their intensity. It can easily happen for 
example that the pressure minimum over the northern ocean may 
be particularly well-marked without being indicated by pressure dif- 



30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 

ferences between the different land stations which Meinardus has 
chosen, for these may he along nearly the same isobars. (This was, 
for example, the case in February, 1899, in 1904 and at other times, 
when the chosen air pressure dift'erences were very small, the 
air circulation over the North Atlantic Ocean, however, very active, 
and this with very different consequences on the temperature of 
Europe.) Meinardus neglects to' consider the effect of the pos- 
sible changes in the wind directions in the different parts of the 
ocean. He supposes that, for example, an increased velocity of the 
Avind over the Gulf Stream would increase its heat transportation 
and make the ocean warmer without considering that the increased 
wind might take a more westerly or northwesterly direction than is 
corfimon. 

Meinardus considers the variations of the surface temperatures 
on the Norwegian coast near the lighthouses Utsire, Helliso and 
Ona, where the coast waters are fairly mixed with the waters of 
the Baltic currents, and near Horns Riff on the west coast of Shet- 
land where the intermixture of coast water is yet more strongly 
marked, in both cases to be due to the greater or less transportation 
of warm water by the Gulf Stream. 

Although as we shall show later we cannot accept these assump- 
tions, yet Meinardus' proofs of the dependence of the variations 
of the air pressure differences, the variations in the surface tem- 
peratures on the Norwegian coast, the heat of the upper layer of 
the ocean at Horns Riff", and also the variations in the transporta- 
tion of ice by the Labrador stream are of great interest. 

The relation between the air pressure distribution over the Atlan- 
tic Ocean, with its Icelandic minimum, and the variations in the 
velocity of the Gulf Stream or in the ocean circulation generally, 
Meinardus considers to be a closed chain of cause and effect. A 
more active Gulf Stream drift would make the ocean in the north 
warmer and a depression of the Icelandic air pressure minimum 
would be the consequence. This again would increase the air 
circulation and increase the velocity of the Gulf Stream, and vice 
versa. By these self-inductions he thinks that the tendency to steadi- 
ness in the temperature deviations, either positive or negative, 
thro'ugh several months may be explained. But the secondary conse- 
quence is that cold ocean currents, particularly the Laborador cur- 
rent, will be increased by increased air circulation, or vice versa, and 
thereby the Gulf Stream will be cooled, or vice versa, and hence 
after the lapse of the necessary time the sea in the east and the north 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 3 1 

will be cooled, or the contrary, and thus the reaction will be called 
forth. 

In a later work, Meinardus treats of what he calls " Periodic 
variations of the ice drift near Iceland" (1906, see also 1908).^ 

The principal results at which Meinardus has arrived in these 
investigations are as follows : From a more vigorous Atlantic cir- 
culation, that is, a greater air pressure difference between Iceland 
and Europe in August to February, there follows : 

1. Higher water temperatures on the European coast from 
November to April. 

2. Higher air temperatures in middle Europe from February to 
April. 

3. A greater quantity of ice near Newfoundland in the spring. 

4. A diminution of ice near Iceland in the spring in comparison 
with preceding and following years.^ 

5. Good wheat and rye harvests in the west of Europe and in 
north Germany. 

Attending weak Atlantic circulation, that is, small air pressure 
difference between Iceland and Europe in August to February, 
he finds the opposite conditions. 

Meinardus thinks it improbable that the variations of the water- 
masses of the Labrador current have particular influence upon 
the temperature of the upper water layers of the Atlantic Ocean, 
since the cold and therefore heavier water of this current to the 
east and south of Newfoundland, must pass underneath the warmer 
though more salty water of the Gulf Stream. " Important mix- 
ture of the heterogeneous waters will perhaps take place in the 
lower layers of the Gulf Stream, but scarcely in its upper ones." 
On the other hand he believes that the icebergs produce a strong 
cooling action upon the upper water surface of the Gulf Stream, 
which occasionally is noticeable even on the west coast of Europe. 
As we shall see, this point of view is opposite to that of Scliott. 
Schott was of the opinion that the temperature variations in the 



^ Grossmann (1908) gives a summary of the results of Meinardus and other 
earlier authors. 

' This is relating, however, to the non-periodic variations of the single years 
in relation to neighboring years. For longer continuing periods of variation 
he finds (1906) on the other hand that the long periods of years of plentiful 
ice near Iceland coincide with relatively low air pressure upon Iceland and 
increased Atlantic circulation, while the periods of less ice on the other hand 
correspond with high air pressure over Iceland and weakened Atlantic cir- 
culation. 



22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEIOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. yo 

surface of the Atlantic Ocean could be attributed to variations 
in the Labrador current water-masses, but not to the ice whose 
influence he considered purely local. 

In his well-known investigations on the action centers of the 
atmosphere H. Hildebrand Hildebrandsson (1897 to 1899) con- 
siders the influence of ocean currents upon the climate. He shows 
that the precipitation in winter at Thorshavn has the same char- 
acter as the precipitation of the previous summer in St. Johns, 
Newfoundland, and also of the following summer in Berlin. He 
suggests that a mild and moist winter in northwest Europe may 
be produced by strong development of the barometric minimum 
between Iceland and Norway. A continuous air current from 
the southwest would then flow along the Gulf Stream. Such 
southwest winds would increase the velocity of this stream and 
thereby in all probability the temperature of the ocean surface 
would be raised. 

If these things are so, says Hildebrandsson, it is apparent that 
if the winter precipitation in Thorshavn governs the precipitation 
of the following summer in Berlin, the precipitation of the pre- 
vious spring and summer in Newfoundland would govern the preci- 
pitation at Thorshavn. Newfoundland lies- not in the Gulf Stream 
but in the cold Labrador Stream. It may therefore be maintained 
that an increase of the Labrador Stream would tend to cool the 
Gulf Stream and that this cooling would be shown half a year 
later at Thorshavn. In this way the successive changes of preci- 
pitation found may be explained by variations of the North Atlantic 
Ocean currents. 

At the same time, however, Hildebrandsson shows that for an 
interval of fifteen years a distinct correspondence persisted between 
the precipitation in winter in British Columbia on the Pacific coasts, 
and the rainfall of the following autumn in the Azores. In this 
case it seems to be shut out of the argument that the correspon- 
dence of the precipitation should be governed by ocean currents. 

Hildebrandsson considers that it is yet too early to assign the 
causes of these phenomena. It can only be said with certainty that 
some action takes place between the atmosphere and the surfaces 
of the ocean and the continents so that a disturbance which occurs 
at one place produces noticeable effects very far away. The cause 
of a phenomenon must often be sought at great distances, even 
in the other hemisphere. It may be possible that it is not a simple 
accidental affair when long periods of drought occur in Europe in 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 33 

the same years when the drift ice and icebergs of the Antarctic 
Ocean have wide distribution, and icebergs even drift as far north 
as the latitude of the Cape of Good Hope. 

In later continuations of his work (1909, 1910, 1914) Hilde- 
brandsson strongly maintains concerning the variations of air pres- 
sure, temperature and precipitation, particularly in winter, that 
there is a well-marked opposing relation between those action centers 
where there is an air pressure minimum and those where there 
is an air pressure maximum. Examples of such opposing centers 
are Iceland and the Azores, Alaska and Siberia, Tierra del Fuego 
and Tahiti. On the other hand a well-marked correspondence exists 
between the action centers of the same kind, as for example between 
the variations of the two air pressure maxima of the Azores and 
Siberia. 

Hildebrandsson thinks that the principal cause of these varia- 
tions which occur in opposing senses in the action centers of opposite 
kind, as for example air pressure minima and air pressure maxima, 
is not to be sought in the very regular tropical climates, and not 
even in the temperate zones. No such far-reaching phenomena of 
great variations from year to year are to be found in these, suffi- 
cient to be the cause of such considerable differences as exist be- 
tween the different types. The cause must therefore, he thinks, be 
found in the polar oceans, in the condition of the polar ice. Dur- 
ing a warm summer in the northern regions, according to his view, 
the ice is broken up and partially melted, and consequently in the 
next winter, in February and March, great masses of ice are com- 
mon near Iceland. This reduces the temperature of the ocean 
between Iceland, Scotland and Norway, which again in its turn 
causes an increase of the air pressure in the same ocean region. 
This, again, influences not only the temperature in the parts of the 
earth which are directly affected by these action centers either in 
the same or opposite direction, but also action centers on the earth 
may be influenced at great distances. 

How Hildebrandsson would explain that a warmer summer 
widens the distribution of the ice and on this account brings a 
greater quantity of ice to Iceland in the next following winter, he 
does not fully state. He does not appear to have observed that 
the variations in the distribution and the drift of the polar ice 
are influenced to a great extent by the variations in the prevailing 
winds, that is to say, in the distribution of air pressure, whereas 
the temperature has, directly, very little to do with it. The con- 



34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

sequence of a warm summer must be principally that more ice than 
common is melted, particularly in the ocean eastward of Green- 
land, and that the quantities of ice which may be available to drift 
southward towards Iceland are thereby diminished. The result 
therefore should follow the opposite direction from that which 
Hildebrandsson assumes. When he points for the proof of the 
accuracy of his assumption to the agreement between the tempera- 
ture variations in northern Norway in summer and the tempera- 
tm-e variations of Iceland in the fall and winter, it might be re- 
marked we should expect such an agreement if, as Wojeikofif has 
indicated, alternate variations of yearly temperature take place in 
the odd and even years. 

It may be seen that the principal cause which Hildebrandsson 
assumes for the variation of the ocean temperature eastward of Ice- 
land is quite different from that which Hann has given, namely 
the variations in the northeast trade wind. 

We shall not pursue further the details of Hildebrandsson's highly 
interesting investigation on the action centers, because we shall 
return to it in a later chapter when we speak of the great variations 
in the climate of the earth in general. We may, however, remark 
that Hildebrandsson suggests that climatic variations (especially 
variations of temperature) of a higher order occur which tend to 
overshadow these variations associated with the different action 
centers. Since these variations of the 'higher order are noted over 
the whole earth, they are regarded as having cosmic causes and 
one is apt from the first to think of them as dependent upon the 
amount of radiation zuhich the sun sends forth. 

H. N. Dickson (1901) has studied a great number of surface 
temperature observations collected by the common trade ships and 
dealing with the distribution of temperature and salt contents in 
the surface of the North Atlantic Ocean in each month of the year 
from the beginning of 1896 to the end of 1897. He believes him- 
self to have shown thereby that great periodic seasonal changes 
and also non-periodic fluctuations take place in the circulation in 
the surface water of the Atlantic Ocean. These fluctuations appear 
to him to be associated with the distribution of air pressure and 
the circulation of the atmosphere, both as relates to the periodic 
seasonal changes and to the long periodic variations. In agree- 
ment with Pettersson and Meinardus, he thinks that the variations 
of the surface temperature of the ocean influence the distribution 
of the atmospheric pressure. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 35 

Along with Dickson's studies on the distribution of tempera- 
ture and salt contents of the surface of the North Atlantic, one 
must classify the later investigations of the same kind made by J. 
Donald [Mathews (1907) for the years 1904 and 1905, and also 
the international investigations which appear in the hydrographic 
bulletins published by the International Bureau in Copenhagen for 
the years after 1905. 

Of interest from our standpoint is Prof. Gerhard Schott's treatise 
entitled " The Great Ice Drift by the Banks of Newfoundland and 
the Heat Distribution of the Ocean Water in the Year 1903 " (1904) 
which was published two months after Meinardus' above-mentioned 
work on the variations of the North Atlantic circulation, in the 
same Journal (Ann. d. Hydr. und Mar. Meteor). Schott comes 
to the conclusion that the uncommonly great quantity of icebergs 
on the Newfoundland Bank in the spring of 1903 from March to 
July, and the generally low surface temperatures in the Atlantic 
Ocean (which according to his view was particularly great in the 
eastern part in the spring) were prinicpally to be ascribed to the 
variations in the intensity of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador 
Stream. He accounts for it in this way: that the increase of the 
velocity of the Gulf Stream must intensify the Labrador Stream, 
whereby the ice drift is intensified. The variation of the surface 
temperature of the ocean should be principally dependent, not upon 
the cooling action of the .ice, but upon the extension of the cold 
water-masses which the intensified Labrador Stream brings down. 
The melting ice plays a negligible role in the great ocean and can 
have only local influence upon the cooling of it. For example, it is 
not to be supposed that " any direct action upon the temperature 
of western Europe can be produced thereby." .We conclude, fur- 
ther, that the ice is not the cause but only a consequence or accom- 
paniment of abnormal heat conditions and ocean current changes." 

Schott, in agreement with Meinardus, attributed as the primary 
cause of the observed variations in the intensity of the ocean cur- 
rents the winds depending upon the distribution of atmospheric 
pressure. 

In the discussion of the surface temperatures recorded in ship 
log-books, and assembled for the different 1° fields of the ocean, 
Schott came to the conclusion that " the Gulf Stream made a very 
marked protrusion to the east in the spring of the year 1903 up to 
the middle of the ocean, with an accompanying increase of its heat 
and its velocity. This protrusion led on its part to an increase of 
the intensity of the cold Labrador current." 



;^6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. yo 

This protrusion of the Gulf Stream in the spring- of 1903 was 
indicated by marked positive anomalies of the surface tempera- 
tures in the whol? western part of the ocean. In February, the 
positive anomalies were most conspicuous in the fields westward 
of 60° west, although they were to be found also between 40° 
and 50° west. In March and April the anomalies were strongly 
increased, and spread eastward in the ocean to 45° west longitude 
in March, and even to 30° west longitude in April. After this they 
withdrew in a westerly direction and the principal part of the 
ocean was rather strongly below the normal temperature during 
the whole summer and the first part of the autumn. 

Schott does not explain why such an increase of the activity of 
the Gulf Stream should have produced so strong an intensification 
of the much smaller and relatively inconsiderable Labrador Stream 
as to produce an end result of a powerful cooling of the surface 
of the Atlantic Ocean in almost its whole extent, instead of a warm- 
ing of it, which would have been expected. Neither does he explain 
how it is that the Labrador current could distribute cold water- 
masses over the surface of the ocean, notwithstanding the fact, 
as Meinardus has brought out, that in consequence of increased 
density its water tends to sink below that of the warm Gulf Stream. 

Let us now consider for comparison the results of our investiga- 
tion of the surface temperatures in the same ocean region, Channel 
to New York, which Schott investigated. These give us a some- 
what different picture from the results of Schott. The negative 
temperature anomalies are on the whole greater, and have a greater 
distribution over the surface of the ocean than he found in Febru- 
ary and March up to April, and there is in these months no 
appearance of such an increase of the activity of the Gulf Stream 
as he describes. Not only in the eastern part of the ocean in 
February (see pi. 26), but also in all the western part between 
60° and 70° west longitude we find positive anomalies in February 
as well as in March and April. Although there is a progressive 
increase in these westerly positive anomalies in these months, it 
finds no extension eastward. It even happens that in the neighbor- 
ing fields, between 50° and 60° west, there is an increase of nega- 
tive anomaly from February to March-April, as well as in the 
whole o'cean eastwards (see pis. 22, 26, the curve W below and 
fig. 20, and No. 41 of the curves for 1903). 

These discrepancies between Schott's results and ours appear 
the more noteworthy since at least in a great part we have used 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 37 

the same observational material from the ships' log-books of the 
Deutschen Seewarte as he did. By comparison of the temperatures 
of the single fields which Schott gives in his charts for February, 
1903, in plate 18, with our material, we find considerable deviations 
(see our pi. 4 and Schott's pi. 18). Unfortunately Schott has 
not given the number of observations for the single fields, but 
since we have given among others temperatures for a whole series 
of fields where he gives none in his charts, we must assume that 
our material is a good deal richer than his, and on that account gives 
more trustworthy indications. 

Besides, we believe that our process in assembling the observa- 
tions in 2° fields" is more advantageous than his assembly in 1° 
fields, especially where the number of observations at each field 
is so small as here. Else a single erroneous observation plays too 
large a part. From bur own material we believe that we can see 
that in a whole series of temperature values in different fields 
Schott has employed only a single observation. 

However, this consideration does not suffice in order to explain 
all the difference between his result and ours. For this we must 
call attention to the fact that he has obtained his normal tempera- 
tures for the single fields from " Quadratarbeit " of the Deutschen 
Seewarte, whereas we obtained our normal temperatures from 
the reduction of all observations of the eleven-year period, 1900 
to 1910. Furthermore, we have used for the computation of the 
temperature anomalies only the temperature normals from the series 
of 48 fields where we found that the number of the observations 
of the different years was great enough so that one might expect 
that they would really give good values. Thus we hope that we 
have results which give a trustworthy picture of the march of the 
distribution of temperature variations. That this is indeed the case 
appears, as we have already remarked, since the different curves 
show close similarity between themselves. 

According to the results which are afforded by the discussion of 
our observation material we think that we may safely say that in 
the time from the beginning of February to the middle of April, 
1903, no such increase in the strength of the Gulf Stream was 
present as Prof. Schott supposes. On the other hand, the surface 
temperatures were in all ocean regions from 60° west and eastward 
to about 25° west in February considerably below the normal. 
Even in the western part of this region, that is to say, between 50° 
and 60° west, the surface temperature of the water was uncommonly 



38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. /O 

cold, much colder than in previous years, with the exception of 1899. 
The already low temperature sank considerably lower in March and 
April over the whole region from 60° west, eastward to about 10° 
west. To be sure there was during this time, as we have remarked, 
a strong increase of temperature anomalies (fro'm +0.3° C, to 
+ 1.7° C.) in the most western fields between 60° and 70° west. 
But this cannot easily be explained by any intensification of the 
Gulf Stream, for if that had been the case the neighboring fields, 
between 50° and 60° west, would have felt the influence, and in 
these there were abnormally low temperatures and a depression in 
the anomalies from — 1.8° C. in February to — 2.1° C. in March- 
April. 

Dr. Wilhelm Brennecke has investigated the " Relations between 
air pressure distribution and the ice conditions of the ocean east- 
ward of Greenland " for the year 1904. Prof. G. Schott has 
treated of " The- boundaries of the drift ice near the Newfoundland 
Banks " in 1904, and finally Dr. L. Mecking has studied " The 
ice drift from the region of Baffins Bay as controlled by current 
and weather" (1905), "The drift ice phenomena near Newfound- 
land and their dependence on climatic relations" (1907). The 
principal results of these different investigations are as follows : 

1. The variations in the ice drift as well in the east Greenland 
polar current as in the Labrador current depend upon variations 
in the distribution of air pressure. 

2. On these grounds the variations from year to j^ear in the 
ice conditions near Newfoundland and Iceland usually go in op- 
posite senses. That is to say, a strong ice drift near Newfound- 
land is attended by simultaneous weak ice drift near Iceland and 
vice versa. 

3. The melted ice water near Newfoundland has no apparent 
direct influence on the temperature of the ocean near the western 
European coast. 

4. In years of very great quantities of ice in the east Greenland 
sea there appears to be a diminution as well of the surface tempera- 
ture of this sea as also of the air temperature in March up to May 
in Iceland and in the northern parts of Europe, as shown at Bodo 
on the Norwegian coast and in a less degree at Copenhagen. In 
years of little ice the temperature is always higher than in normal 
years. In years of extraordinarily great quantities of ice in the 
east Greenland sea there is also a low surface temperature in 
the sea near the east coast of Iceland (Papey), near the Faroe 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 39 

Islands (Thorshavn) and near the Norwegian coast (Ona and 
Andenes) . 

Prof. Hann (1904-5) has studied the relation between the varia- 
tions of temperature of northwestern and middle Europe, at Green- 
wich, Brussels, and Vienna. A. Buchan had recognized in the 
year 1867 the dependence between the air-pressure anomalies in 
Stykkisholm and the air-temperature anomalies over the British 
Isles. He showed that the cold period in the year 1867 in Scot- 
land coincided with high air pressure over Iceland and northern 
Scotland and low air pressure over the channel in southwest Europe, 
while the great heat of July, 1868, in Scotland coincided with uncom- 
monly low air pressure at Stykkisholm and high air pressure over 
Scotland. The latter correlation occurred also in September, 1865. 
By investigations over a long period of years, Hann came to the 
conclusion that " an intensification of the air pressure minimum 
near Iceland is attended by increase of the winter temperature 
over northwest and middle Europe, while a diminution of it pro- 
duces a lowering of the same. In how far the intensity of this 
North Atlantic barometric minimum depends on the positive or 
negative temperature anomalies of the ocean water in the North 
Atlantic is a question which cannot be touched upon in this investi- 
gation. Such a dependence is in a high degree probable but it is 
very difficult to recognize and separate the cause and effect in the 
matter. On one point we may, however, remark. While the 
anomaly of the ocean temperature is often longer than a whole year 
of the same sign, the air-pressure anomaly at Iceland varies much 
oftener. The anomaly of the ocean temperature and that of the 
air-pressure often differ in sense." In the summer months he finds 
the relation between the air pressure in Iceland and the tempera- 
ture in Europe alternate, as would indeed be expected. 

In this paper Hann investigated also the relation between the 
variations in the two action centers of the atmosphere over the 
North Atlantic Ocean. That is to say, he compared the air pressures 
in the region of minimum near Iceland and the region of high pres- 
sure near the Azores, and found that in a majority of cases rela- 
tively lower pressure in Iceland (Stykkisholm) coincided with rela- 
tively high air pressure in the Azores (Ponta Delgada) . Conversely, 
low air pressure in Ponta Delgada occurred with relatively high 
air pressure in Stykkisholm. This dependence, he thinks to ex- 
plain, at least in part, sihce a high pressure in the Azores must 
generally fall with " an increased activity of the atmospheric cir- 



40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

culation. If the northeast trade blows more strongly than usual 
it would tend to displace the maximum towards the right. Thereby 
the atmospheric cyclone over the North Atlantic Ocean would be 
intensified with attendant intensifications of the air pressure mini- 
mum of its center near Iceland. Intensified high pressure near 
the Azores and the dependent intensification of the air pressure 
minimum near Iceland can therefore be connected as cause and 
efi^ect." 

Prof. Gossmann has studied " The Relation Between the Tempera- 
tures of the North Atlantic Ocean and of the Northwest and Mid- 
dle Europe " (1908), and particularly in how far this relation may 
be used for temperature forecasting. He cites liberally from earlier 
investigations of the same matter. He seems to have assumed er- 
roneously that variations in the surface temperature of the water 
along the Norwegian coast are directly connected with the varia- 
tions in the Gulf Stream. In an investigation covering a long 
series of years, he comes to the conclusion that a temperature fore- 
cast for north Europe based upon the temperature of the sea on 
the Norwegian coast will in general be less trustworthy than a fore- 
cast which is based on the local temperature conditions of the dif- 
ferent places. Such a forecast may be based on the previously noted 
tendency to a continuation in the same sense of the temperature 
deviations and the changes of temperatures from month to month 
and partially also from quarter to quarter, which would furnish 
certain conditions for temperature forecast. As he appears to have 
incorrectly assumed that the variations in the surface temperature of 
the water along the Norwegian coast coincide with variations in 
the Gulf Stream, he comes to the conclusion " that the variations 
of the temperatures of the Gulf Stream cannot be directly the 
cause of the phenomenon (that is to say, of the conservational 
tendency of the temperature deviations, etc.). We must associate 
it rather with a conservational tendency of the air pressure 
distribution." 

Grossmann thinks that before one may accept as a sufficient ex- 
planation the reciprocal action between the ocean temperature and 
the air pressure distribution to which Meinardus called attention, 
it must at least be shown " that the observed differences of ocean 
temperature are sufficient in their influence to produce the 
differences in the air pressure distribution which are revealed 
in the mean values of the air pressure differences as well as in the 
charts of air pressure distribution for different periods." Gross- 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 4I 

mann inclines " toward the view that besides the reactions of air 
pressure distribution and ocean temperature described by Meinardus, 
there is in operation a more powerful higher cause which we do 
not yet understand. It is this which calls forth both the continuity 
and the periodic discontinuity, or as we might better say, the change- 
ability of the air pressure distribution, and thereby induces the 
parallelism of the ocean and air temperatures as a consequence 
of it." 

The variations in the temperature of the ocean and their connec- 
tion with the variations in the air pressure distribution over the 
northern regions and in the air temperature in Europe are investi- 
gated in the above mentioned treatises only with the help of the 
yearly observations of the surface temperature of the water along 
the Norwegian coast and the coast of Jutland. Only in later 
years have the variations of the surface temperature in the Atlan- 
tic Ocean itself been methodically investigated. 

Here we must give first place to Dr. Johannes Petersen's treatise 
entitled " Non-periodic temperature variations in the Gulf Stream 
and their relation to the air pressure distribution" (1910). This 
is based on the observational material of the Deutschen Seewarte 
for the same region along the course Channel to New York, which 
we have investigated. Petersen has twelve stations along this route, 
with an interval of about 5° of longitude between these stations.* 

Each station consists of a 1° field (covering 1° in longitude and 1° 
in latitude) within which all the observations for each month of the 
year were assembled (without regard to the decades) and for the 
twenty years from 1883 to 1902. This arrangement has the weak- 
ness that with such small fields the number of observations even for 
a whole month together is too small in order to give trustworthy 
values, particularly in regions where the variations are very great. 
The number of observations for each station per month, says Peter- 
sen, varied between five and twenty, but nevertheless there were many 
gaps. His observational material for the time February to April 
was considerably less than that which we have employed, on which 
account the temperature curves for his individual stations show on 
the whole a less good agreement than the curves for our individual 



^ The situations of the observation stations are as follows : 

Station i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n 12 

Longitude W 12° 17° 22° 27° 31° 36° 41° 46° 51° 56° 61° 66" 

Latitude Jan.-July 49° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 43° 41° 41° 40° 40° 40° 

Latitude Aug.-Dec 50° 50° 50° 49° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44° 42° 41" 

4 



42 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 



2° longitude fields, hence we must suppose that in all probability our 
results are more accurate than his. 

If we draw the curves for February and March for Petersen's 
individual stations or 1° fields, we see that these curves compared 
with ours agree well in the eastern stations but not so well, especi- 
ally for March, the further one goes toward the west. If we com- 
pare the two series for the first and second decade groups for the 



1898 S9 -1900 i 



/^iA K/. 

i898 99 1900 1 




. PETERSEN 
. • .H-H.h-f/. 



Figure 13. Curves for the temperature anomalies for February and March 
1898 to 1902 at Petersen's 2 by 2 stations by pairs, (the full drawn lines) with 
the anomaly curves for our 10° fields for February and March- April (dotted 
lines) combined. 



years 1898 to 1902, where we both have observations, we find a very 
good agreement between the curves of Petersen's most eastern field 
station 1, (that is between 12° and 13° west longitude and 49° and 
50° north latitude) and those for our fields between 12° and 14° 
west longitude and 49° and 50° north latitude. But for the fields 
westward of this the agreement is less satisfying and becomes worse 
the further towards the west one goes until west 41° the agreement 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 43 

apparently disappears. That is, hoVever, what one must expect. In 
the eastern regions the relations of the individual fields are so simi- 
lar that even a few observations in a small field are sufficient to fur- 
nish a fairly good mean value, while for the more variable region 
further westward a much more extensive observational material is 
necessary, and for this purpose, as we have seen, i° fields are not 
adequate. 

If one forms the mean of the temperature anomalies, taking Peter- 
sen's stations two by two which lie within our 10° longitude fields 
(between io° and 20° west longitude, etc.) it would be expected that 
more trustworthy values in comparison with ours would be obtained. 
In figure 13 the full curves show results found in this way for Peter- 
sen's stations for February and March from 1898 to 1902, and the 
dotted lines give the corresponding curves for our 10° longitude 
fields. The agreement is better, especially in the eastern fields, than 
we had expected. 

In comparing the Petersen curves for March with ours for the 
last decade group, one should not forget that these last extend from 
March 15 to April 13 and the times for the curves do not fall 
together, which in part explains their discrepancies. But it does not 
explain the extraordinary deviation between the curves for the field 
50° to 59° west longitude. In this field our curves for the first and 
last decade groups for the years 1898 to 1902 fall almost exactly 
together and we seem justified in supposing therefore that during 
the time intervening the same relations must hold in this region. 
There is therefore no place for the great disagreement which Peter- 
sen's curves show, and we must conclude that these are not repre- 
sentative. 

The principal result of Petersen's investigations is that the yearly 
variations in the surface temperatures of the Atlantic Ocean depend 
on the air pressure distribution, which controls the winds. He has, 
however, made no attempt to reduce this relation to a quantitative 
basis. 

He finds that the changes of position of the Icelandic air pressure 
minimum are of great importance for the variations of the surface 
temperatures in the Atlantic Ocean. He says " the non-periodic 
changes of the position of the Icelandic depression cause correspond- 
ing variations in the direction of the wind, which, after one or two 
m.onths interval, express themselves by the increase or diminution of 
the ocean temperatures. Thus, for example, a very westerly posi- 
tion of the depression calls forth, by means of the wind, high tem- 



44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 

peratures in the East Atlantic Ocean. An abnormally eastern posi- 
tion on the other hand brings about low temperatures. If the abnor- 
mal distribution of the air pressure is particularly strongly marked 
it makes itself felt in the temperatures of the whole extent of the 
ocean. Otherwise opposite temperature departures occur on the 
opposite shores." 

Petersen comes to the important conclusion that the variations in 
the Gulf Stream influence directly the Icelandic air pressure mini- 
mum; but not so much — as Meinardus had assumed — in that they 
themselves increase or diminish its intensity by means of systems of 
self-inducing- force, but that they alter the situation of it. An inten- 
sified Gulf Stream drift leads greater quantities of heat into the 
Norwegian Ocean, warms the air, generates an air pressure mini- 
mum and draws thereby the Icelandic minimum towards the east. 
In this way more westerly and northwesterly winds are generated 
in the Atlantic Ocean, which tend to hinder the Gulf Stream. If, 
however, the Gulf Stream in consequence of these flows more 
weakly, this has the opposite influence and the Icelandic minimum 
has a tendency to retreat towards Greenland. As an accompany- 
ing phenomenon it occurs that when the Gulf Stream is weakened, 
then the cold east Greenland current, which is its compensation cur- 
rent, flows slower and extends less far than commonly. In this 
way the Icelandic air pressure minimum may more easily be pressed 
back toward the west into a relatively warmer region and so the 
cyclical process begins again. In this way it is that " the Gulf 
Stream by means of its indwelling forces regulates its own trans- 
portation of heat and forms a current which alternates between a 
time of strong flow and a time of weak flow." 

Petersen thinks that his tables on the temperature anomalies at 
his twelve stations in the twelve months of the year prove the impos- 
sibility of the assumption that variations in the surface temperatures 
can be produced " by variations in temperatures of tropical waters 
which are carried along through the Atlantic water circulation 
througho'ut its whole course with the velocity of the water flow." 
One sees no such movement of negative or positive anomalies from 
one station toward the other. He may be right in maintaining that 
most variations are not thus caused, but he has not proved that they 
can never be caused in this way. He ignores in his conclusion the 
source of error that without proof he has assumed that the water 
masses move from west towards east in the same direction as his 
steamer lines. If on the contrarv the current sroes at rigrht angles 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 45 

to or in some degree obliquely to them his consequence would be 
erroneous and his temperatures anomahes for the twelve stations 
would prove little either in one direction or the other. 

Petersen found further that the deviations in the surface tempera- 
tures of the North Atlantic Ocean have a well marked tendency to 
swina: about an axis in the center of the ocean at about 40° west 



/Z // /O 9 8 




V/«V /2-^ ^^//-^ //■«? //■7 116 //.6 



Figure 14. Isopleth diagram of the average temperatures for each month 
of the year (J-D) at J. Petersen's twelve stations (i to 12) along the abscissae. 

longitude in such a way that the temperature deviations eastward 
and westward of this axis are of opposite sign. Petersen's obser- 
vational material is, however, not sufficiently complete and satisfac- 
tory to prove such a conclusion, particularly for the western fields. 
Petersen's investigations have interest for us in that they embrace 
all the months of the year, and we can therefore follow the march 
of the average temperatures from month to month. In figure 14 



46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

we have given an isoplethic diagram drawn from the mean tempera- 
tures for each month at each of his stations. It is to be noticed here 
that in the months January to July the observations along the south- 
ern steamer route, that is to say, the winter course between the 
English Channel and New York, are given, and that is the same 
course for which the most of our observations are found. From 
August to December they follow the northern route, that is to say, 
the summer route, which is considerably farther north, particularly 
in the middle part of the ocean, where the difference for example at 
40° west longitude amounts to 4° in latitude and at 46° west longi- 
tude, 5° in latitude. This explains the break in the values which 
occurs between July and August and also between December and 
January. 

We see that in the months January to July the minimum is at 
station No. 9, at 51° west longitude and 41° north latitude, while 
from August to December it falls at station 8, eastward pf this at 
about 46° west longitude and 46° north latitude. The explanation 
is easily apparent, for station 9 is upon the southern route immedi- 
ately on the west side of the earlier mentioned " cold wedge " due to 
the Labrador current. Since this region of cold Labrador water 
follows the eastern declivity of the Newfoundland Bank from north- 
east toward southwest, it is plain that if we go further north to 
the northern steamer route, the region of minimum temperature 
must be found further eastward near station No. 8. 

On the whole, this isopleth diagram gives a good representation 
of the principal features of the distribution and change of tempera- 
ture for the year in this entire oceanic region. 

Dr. H. Liepe in his paper entitled " Temperature Variations of 
the Surface of the Ocean from Ouessant to St. Pauls Rock " (1911) 
has investigated the variations of eight stations during the 20-year 
period from 1884 to 1903. These were 1° fields which he chose in 
the most frequented shipping routes along the east side of the Atlan- 
tic Ocean, from the English Channel and southwards towards St. 
Paul near the equator (see pi. 15, I- VI II). In the same manner as 
Petersen, Liepe assembled for each month all observations of the 
surface temperatures within 1° fields as given by the ships' log-books 
of the Deutschen Seewarte. The number of the observations within 
the different fields varied a great deal. On the average there were 
about 17 observations a month for each of the eight 1° fields, and 
the highest number of observations for one field during a month 
reached 46. An under limit of five observations per month was 
fixed. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



47 



The march of temperatures found by Liepe for his eight stations 
gives the impression that he obtained more accurate values than 
those of Petersen for the single stations since the curves for the 
different stations agree better (see fig. 15). Compared with 
our curves for the years common to the two series of observa- 
tions, that is from 1898 to 1903, there is a good correspondence 
in the curves for our eastern and southeastern fields concerning 



93 1900 1 




I 

6-7°W. 



n 

ii2-h2)°N. 

9-iom. 
m 

3-WW. 



IV 

30-31°N. 
15'-m°W. 



V 

23'2'/<>/V. 

w 

d 21-22"^ 

vn 

8-9"/^.. 
25-26" W. 

vm 

2-3" N. 
Z9h-301i.W. 



• rCBKUAR 



Figure 15. Curves for the anomalies of the surface temperatures at Liepe's 
stations I to VIII for February and March, 1898 to 1903. 

which we shall speak again. This was to be expected, because the 
hydrographic relations in the region investigated by Liepe are much 
more regular than in the greater part of the region investigated by 
Petersen, and in this respect Liepe's region is similar to our eastern 
and southeastern one. 

The principal conclusion of Liepe in relation to the causes of the 
variations agrees with Petersen's view that they are to be referred 
to the winds. 



48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. "JO 

For his three most northerly stations between 35° and 38° north 
latitude it is the variation in the direction of the wind which princi- 
pally influences the variations of the surface temperature of the sea, 
sometimes in the same month, but sometimes in the month follow- 
ing-. He says " the strength of the winds acts for these stations as 
an intensifying, but not a causal factor. On the other hand, within 
the trades and especially for stations 4 to 6, between 18° and 31° 
north latitude, the strength of the wind is the principal cause, since 
the direction of the trades may be looked upon in general as pretty 
constant. The effect of varying strength of northeast trade winds 
shows itself in the following month, or the next but one, while that 
of the southeast trades is first noted in the following year, in the 
surface temperatures of the stations mentioned." 

Although Liepe is of the opinion that the winds on the whole pro- 
duce a fairly quick and local influence which may be different simul- 
taneously in different parts of the ocean, he seems also to assume 
that, for example, the depression of the surface temperature, at 
least in part, is to be ascribed to the transportation of cold water 
masses from considerable distances over the ocean. He says, for 
example (1911. p. 480), that "the existence of uncommonly great 
quantities of drift ice and icebergs in the Labrador Stream in com- 
bination with a northwesterly direction of the wind may have 
tended to favor the formation of the so strongly marked negative 
anomaly of temperature which appears in these stations on the 
French and Spanish coasts." He seems even to believe that an 
increased melting of ice in the Arctic regions attending a strong 
increase of warm water from the Gulf may be effective in depress- 
ing the surface temperature of the stations. We have to assume 
that he attributes this to the transportation of cold ice water over 
the Atlantic Ocean with a mixing Avith the Gulf Stream water, 
although he does not express himself clearly to this effect. 

It is interesting to note the good agreement between the yearly 
curves for the surface temperature at Liepe's station No. i and 
Petersen's station No. i, which have been assembled by Dr. Peter- 
sen (see his publication 1912, p. 112). The two curves show also an 
excellent agreement with our February and ]\Iarch-April curve for 
the eastward 10° longitude fields, and also for the northeasterly 
fields of the Portugal-Azores region. This indicates that the varia- 
tions from year to year for the coldest months of the year cor- 
respond to the variations for the whole years, a point which we shall 
later treat more extensively. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 49 

Dr. Engeler's work entitled '' Periodic and Non-Periodic Temper- 
ature Variations of the Benguela Current" (1910) may be men- 
tioned here since it is concerned with the variations of the surface 
temperatures of the eastern part of the South Atlantic Ocean, simi- 
lar to those which we have hitherto discussed in the North Atlantic 
Ocean. His investigations extend over the years 1891 to 1898 and 
are based upon observations along the German sailing ship route, 
round the south end of Africa, as well as those of the English steamer 
route between Cape Colony and Europe. He finds great variations 
of the surface temperatures from year to year, with well marked 
maximum and minimum periods, and these come for the most part 
about the same time in the whole investigated region. He thinks 
that these variations cannot be attributed to non-periodic incursions 
of cold water-masses from the Antarctic Ocean since the effect of 
these must be gradually spread northward between the southern and 
northern part of the investigated ocean current and could not affect 
both of its branches simultaneously. 

On the other hand he thinks that strong ice drift with quantities 
of icebergs in the South Atlantic Ocean may have produced in single 
periods as in the years 1893 and 1894 a certain influence on the 
variations, and have tended to limit the maximum periods and in- 
tensify the minima. It is little remarkable that he does not note 
that this action which he must also attribute to the extension of cold 
water northwards must have made itself most felt in the southerly 
part of the current rather than in the northern exactly as if it 
depended upon intrusion of cold water-masses from the Antarctic 
ice ocean, unless he assumes an intervention of the air temperature. 

Engeler attributes as the principal cause of the variations of the 
surface temperature of the Benguela Current " the non-periodic 
variations of the intensity of the southeast trade winds with which 
they are associated in an unbroken chain of cause and effect." By 
an increase or diminishing of the strength of the trades, the trans- 
portation of currents of cold water is increased or diminished and 
the surface temperature correspondingly sinks or rises. 

He thinks that another influence of winds of non-periodically 
varying intensity may lie in the fact, that in consequence of the 
greater circulation of the waters an uprise of cold water from the 
bottom must take place in the current, since the greater velocities 
must hinder the approach of water-masses from the south. " Such 
a moment occurs naturally at all points of the current simultane- 
ously. Which of these two processes has the principal influence 



50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS V^OL. 70 

cannot be decided with certainty." The last remark can scarcely 
be entirely correct, for the action cannot be equally strongly distri- 
buted at all times, but must be greatest behind the stronger winds. 

The only published observations on variations of the intensity of 
the southeast trade winds relate to St. Helena, for the years 1892 to 
1898 and are very insufficient for a proper comparison between the 
relations of the wind and temperature variations. They can only 
give certain qualitative impressions without elevating the investiga- 
tion to a quantitative basis. 

W. Koppen has investigated the question " On What is the High 
Temperature of Europe and the North Atlantic Dependent?" 
(191 1). He arrives at the conclusion that in part at least the varia- 
tions of the yearly seasons depend upon the cloudiness which in 
Europe is greatest in the winter and least in summer, both condi- 
tions tending to an increase of the temperature. Furthermore, he 
attributes a part to the prevailing winds which are southwesterly. 
Of far the most considerable influence on the high temperature in 
Europe are the warm ocean currents which batlje the west and 
northwest coast. Koppen does not deal with the periodic and non- 
periodic variations, but contents himself with a statement that it 
has long been known that the simple nearness of warm water and 
its action on climate is not decisive, but that the direction of prevail- 
ing winds makes it influential. He says, " their influence can only 
be felt when it is borne by the winds." He thinks besides that there 
cannot yet be accurately estirnated the relative effects on the warm- 
ing of Europe of the different factors, the water-masses of the Gulf 
Stream, the prevailing winds, and the cloudiness, even though one 
should be satisfied with a rough approximation. 

Commander Campbell Hepworth, (1910) compared the variation 
in the surface temperature in the North Atlantic with the variation 
of the strength of the trade winds. He is of the opinion that there 
is a distinct dependence between the two, and such that variations 
in the strength of the northeast and southeast trade winds in a series 
of months or in a single month are roughly mirrored by the dis- 
tribution of surface temperatures of the North Atlantic Ocean in 
the corresponding series of months or single month of the follow- 
ing year. That the dependence is not always distinct, he attributes 
to the fact that many other causes influence the temperature of the 
ocean surface, and tend to hide the influence he points out. Particu- 
larly the activity of the Labrador Stream and the Gulf Stream are 
of importance in this connection and also the strength and duration 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 5 1 

of the westerly winds. Furthermore he is of the opinion that the 
length of time is variable which is required for the influence of the 
variations in the strength of the trade winds to make itself felt in 
the North Atlantic Ocean through the medium of the Equatorial 
Current. 

In a later work (1912 and 1914) Campbell Hepworth has inves- 
tigated the relation between the variations of the Labrador Stream, 
the variations of the surface temperature of the North Atlantic 
Ocean, and the variations of the air pressure and temperature over 
the British Isles. He believes he has established a certain connec- 
tion between the three kinds of variation, although one must say that 
this dependence is somewhat far-fetched and often yields to other 
stronger influences which make themselves apparent. The agree- 
ment between his curves for these variations is therefore not very 
striking and his results are not particularly convincing, 

P. H. Galle has compared in two papers (1915 and 1916) the rela- 
tions between the variations in the strength of the North Atlantic 
trade winds and the variations in the height of the water and the 
temperature in the North European seas as well as the variations in 
the winter temperature of Europe. He comes to the conclusion that 
there is a connection between these. But the agreement between 
the variations of the strength of the trade wind and the variations 
of the height of the water of the North Sea, which he shows, is not 
very great. Also the agreement between the variations of the trade 
wind and the variations of the surface temperature of the northern 
European seas is not particularly striking. His comparison of the 
variations of strength of the trades and the variations of the winter 
temperature of certain parts of Europe leads to better agreement. 
It has been shown by several authors, that this latter is in a great 
measure influenced by the air pressure distribution over the Atlantic 
Ocean and Europe and also that the variations of these pressure 
distributions depend in a certain degree on the variations in the trade 
winds. Hence it is not improbable that the trade wind is the 
original cause. 

Galle claims, as Campbell Hepworth also maintained, that a slight 
connection exists between the strength of the trade winds and the 
temperature of the British Isles, but it is indeed very small. Camp- 
bell Hepworth found a phase displacement of about fourteen months, 
while Galle estimated it as only two months. 



52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

V. THE VARIATIONS IN THE SURFACE TEMPERATURE 

As already noted, our curves (figs. i6 to 19) for the temperature 
anomalies of the ocean surface in the single 2° longitude fields in 
the whole eastern part of the investigated region show a marked 
agreement over great regions. The dififerent characteristic lines, 
which indicate the variations, change from field to field by a gradual 
march as o'ne looks forward, for example, from the east toward the 
west. Among prominent common features may be noted the depres- 
sion in the year 1904, which appears on all the eastern curves for 
the first decade group February 3 to March 4, particularly from 
10° west longitude to 40° west longitude, and in part even to 50° 
west longitude. An equal depression is found in the curve for the 
second decade group (March 15 to April 13), in the eastern part 
of the investigated region. But further toward the west the great- 
est depression occurs in the year 1903. 

In common for a considerable part of the curves as well for the 
first as for the second decade groups, is also a depression occurring 
in the year 1899. The curves tend toward a maximum in the year 
1901. Further on the temperature generally rises strongly from 
the year 1904 with small breaks to the years 1906, 1907 and 1908. 

The curves for the single 2° fields westward of 44° and 46° west 
longitude at 41° north latitude show apparently only slight cor- 
respondence, and our figures 17 to 19 are calculated to give an 
impression of a chaotic medley of lines with no similarity. That 
these irregularities begin at about 46° west depends upon the fact 
that here a certain great discontinuity in temperature of the fields 
occurs from temperatures about 13° or 14° C. to between 6.8° and 
8.5° C. The irregularities in the curves westward of this boundary 
have clearly as their cause the fact that in this part of the ocean 
the isotherms for the ocean temperatures lie so closely together 
that a comparatively slight difference of locality even within the 
same 2° fields is sufficient to produce a great temperature change, 
so that the distribution of the observations within the field may 
have a great influence on the mean value. Besides this, it occurs 
that inaccuracies in the determination of the position of the observer 
may produce a noticeable influence in this region. Furthermore, 
slight local movements of the water surface may easily produce 
changes in the surface temperature in such localities. 

It is moreover probable that many accidental errors may play a 
part in the computed mean values for the single fields, even when 
the number of observations is quite large. More than a moderately 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



53 




jase 99 ■100 1 2 3 5 5 6 7 



7 a i 10 



Figure i6. 



Figure 17. 



Figures 16 and 17. Curves for the temperature anomalies of the surface 
at the single 2° longitude fields between 10° and 56° west longitude, 50° and 41° 
north latitude for February (full drawn lines) and March-April (dotted 
lines) for the years 1898 to 190Q. The scale of figure 16 at the left is twice 
as great as of figure 17 at the right. 



54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 




S8-S3'' 



1698 BS BOO I Z i h 5 C 7 3 9 10 



Figure 18. Continuation of figure 17. Curves for fields between 48° 
and 66 west longitude, 42° and 40° north latitude. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE X'ARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



55 



g-Qod agreement between the single curves for the fields is therefore 
not to be expected. These curves each by itself can make no pre- 
tense that it represents with absolute correctness the conditions of 
its region; 

However, it is clear that representative values may be obtained 
by taking the mean for the 2° fields over a considerable region. We 
have, as we have already said, therefore divided our whole northerly 
region between 10° and 70° west longitude in six fields, each of 10° 
longitude. Within each of these 10° longitude fields, we have taken 



hO°N. 




68-6i)o 



Figure ig. Continuation of figure 18. Curves for fields between 60° and 
70° west longitude, 40° and 41° north latitude. 

the mean of the anomalies of the mean temperatures of the chosen 
2° fields. The temperature anomalies thus obtained for both decade 
groups are given in table 2-W and are graphically expressed by 
the curves in figure 20. These curves show a great correspondence, 
and it is therefore doubtless to be assumed that they correspond to 
the actual temperature relations. 

This applies also for the field between 50° and 60° west longitude 
where the curves for the single 2° fields are somewhat irregular. 
Among other things the correspondence between the curves of the 
first and the second decade groups for these 10° longitude fields 
warrants the belief that the variations which they show depend in 



56 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 



no degree on the accidental character of the observations, but 
quantitatively and qualitatively are completely trustworthy. 

The curves for the western field between 60° and 70° west longi- 
tude seem to be the least satisfactory, since they deviate strongly 

99 1900 1 2 3^56789 MJO 




Figure 20. Curves for the temperature anomalies for the surface in 10° 
longitude fields along the shipping course Channel to New York for February 
(full drawn lines) and March-April (dotted lines) 1898 to 1910. 

from the other curves and even disagree among themselves to some 
extent. In this region of the sea we must expect that the accidental 
sources of error will make themselves the most strongly felt in 
the observations, partly because the isotherms here lie very close 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



57 



together and partly because the ocean is here to a great extent af- 
fected by coast water. However, these curves show certain great 
features which give the impression of being in agreement with the 
true conditions. By more accurate studies one also finds that these 
are by no means accidental. We will later return to this con- 
sideration. 

In figures 21 and 22 we give curves showing the temperature 
anomalies for February and for March-April for the chosen six 
10° longitude fields. These curves are smoothed according to the 




Figures 21 and 22. Smoothed curves (according to the formula i 
(a -\- 2b -\- c) for the temperature anomalies for February (fig. 21) and for 
March-April (fig. 22) for the same fields as in figure 20. 



formula b' = :|(a + 2b-|-c). The illustrations show the general fea- 
tures of the temperature variations in our period very distinctly 
and regularly. 

In figures 23 to 26 are shown the form of the isopleths according 
to the results of our investigations along the ship route from the 
Channel to New York. These relate to the first decade group in 
February and to the second decade group in March-April. We give 
for each year and for each decade group the mean of the tempera- 
tures for all fields of 4° of longitude between 10° and 70° west 
longitude. The fields are indicated above on the axis of abscissae 
of the figure, and the years at the side as ordinates. In figures 



58 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



23 and 25, the mean temperatures found in this way for the 4° 
longitude fields for each year and for each decade group are given. 
In figures 24 and 26 are given the corresponding average tempera- 




FiGURE 22,. Temperatures of the 4° longitude fields along the shipping 
course Channel to New York in the first decade group February 3 to March 
4, 1898 to 1910. 



/SffS 
99 

f900 
01 
02 
05 
0^ 
05 
06 
07 
08^ 
09 
/O 



70-66'\6S-6Z'\SZ-S8-\5B-St'\5¥-SO-\5O-'f6-\^S-',Z'\'tZ-38'\il-Z'f'\i''-Z0'\l,0-26'\i.6-Z2'ni-/S 

n ,8 *^. Aii^T^^ J . ' ?«|| 




Figure 24. Temperature anomalies of the same 4° longitude fields and 
for the same time as in figure 23. 



ture anomalies carried out to tenths of a degree. The vertical bold- 
faced numbers represent positive anomalies, the inclined figures 
negative ones. Iso-anomalies are given for each degree, the full 
lines for positive anomalies, the dotted lines for negative ones. The 
fields with positive anomalies are indicated by cross-hatching. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



59 



April. 



22-/S'\/S-/f'' 




Figure 25. Temperatures of the same 4° longitude fields as in fig 
in the second decade group March 15 to April 13, 1898 to 1910. 



ure 23 



Mar z — A p r ' 




Figure 26. Temperature anomalies for the same 4° longitude fields and 
for the same time as in figure 23. 




Figure 27. Difference of the surface temperatures in tenths of a degree 
Centigrade in February and March-April for 4° longitude fields along the 
shipping course Channel to New York. 14 designates warming from February 
to March-April, 14 designates cooling. 



6o 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



These isopleths give a very clear presentation of the distribution 
of the temperature variation as well for the places as for the 
times. There is well marked agreement between them. We find 
that the great minimum in the years 1903 and 1904 both in the first 



9.9 1300 123'> 56789 10 



' 37-38° N. 




Figure 28. Curves for the surface temperature for 10° longitude fields 
between 10° and 40° west longitude and between 27° and 45° north latitude, 
February, 1898 to 1910. 

and in the second decade group is strongly indicated, also the 
smaller minimum in the year 1899, particularly strongly indicated in 
the first decade group. Both the first and the second maximum 
periods are distinctly indicated. The difference between the western 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 6l 

and the eastern fields and the middle ocean region is also clearly 
marked. 

In figure 2"] we give to tenths of degrees the differences between 
temperatures in the first decade group, February, and the second 
decade group, March-April, for the same 4° longitude fields along 
the steamer route Channel-New York. The bold-faced figures in- 
dicate here increase of temperature from February to March-April, 
while the inclined ones indicate cooling. We see that here also a 
certain regularity or system prevails with regard to the place and 
time of the distribution of these temperature differences. We find 
for example that in the year 1903 the temperature diminished from 
February to March- April over great regions in the middle part of 
the ocean, while in the year 1904 there was an increase of tempera- 
ture from February to March-April. In the year 1905 again there 
was a diminution of temperature during this time interval over the 
greater part of the fields. This also was the case in the year 1906 
in the western half of the region, but not in the eastern half. In 
the first years, 1898 to 1900, there was in all fields a general rise 
of temperature from February toward March-April. This was also 
the case in the last year, 1910. 

What we have said about the curves for the anomalies of the 
surface temperatures in our northern region Channel to New York 
is in general true of most of the corresponding values and curves 
in the southern region between 27° and 45° north latitude and be- 
tween 10° and 40° west longitude. In consequence of the small 
number of observations we have, as already remarked, reduced the 
observations within this region to larger fields of 10° in length and 
2° in width, and in this way twelve such 10° longitude fields were 
obtained (see fig. i). 

In figure 28 we show graphically by curves the values obtained 
for the surface temperature in all the years within these twelve 
fields. The variations of curves agree in all their principle features 
so well together that they must certainly be closely representative 
of the truth. It is moreover worth noting that the agreement 
between the curves is particularly good for those fields which ad- 
join one another in the direction north to south between the same 
10° longitude intervals. The agreement is not so good for the 
fields taken from east to west. Finally there is a good agreement 
between the curves for these three groups of 10° fields and the 
curves of the next northerly or northeasterly lying 10° fields of 
the northern region of our observational material, that is, Channel 
to New York (see figs. 20 and 28). 



62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

If we consider now the different parts of this great region of 
investigation more closely, it is apparent that the difference in the 
geographical relations comes to an expression in these curves. Par- 
ticularly the curves for those fields which adjoin the continental 
coast in the east, that is, between io° and 20° west longitude, and 
those similarly lying on the west, that is, between 60° and 70° west 
longitude, differ from the curves for the fields in the middle of the 
ocean. This holds not only for the region Channel to New York 
(see fig. 20) but also for the southern region Portugal to Azores, 
figure 28. 

The curves for the most easterly 2° fields of the northern region 
have in general about the same type, between 10° and 20° (see 
fig. 16) as is also shown by these 10° fields in figure 20. These 
curves are distinguished by several well marked features from 
the curve of more westerly fields. Particularly the curves for the 
first decade groups in figure 20 show as a distinguishing character- 
istic a symmetrical depression from the year 1898 to 1902, then 
two secondary maxima in the year 1903 and 1905 and a minimum 
in the year 1904. In the year 1906 there came a small depression. 
In the curves for the second decade group these characteristic 
features were somewhat altered. 

A similarity with the curves for the first decade group is found 
also in the curve for the most northerly 10° field for the northern 
region, that is, from 10° to 19° west longitude and from 43° to 44° 
north latitude, as shown in figure 28. This is yet more apparent in 
the curve for the field westward of it, 20° to 29° west longitude 
and 43° to 44° north latitude. 

All of these curves belong, as one may say, to the same type and are 
distinguished from the curves for the fields further out toward the 
middle of the ocean. Closely related to them are the curves for 
the three southerly 10° fields between 10° and 20° west longitude 
and between 27° and 43° north latitude as shown in figure 28, which 
also present different characters from the more westerly curves. 
Indeed their features are at times inverted. 

The curves for the most westerly field of the ocean between 60° 
and 70° west longitude show great features which are completely 
different from those which we find in all the rest and they form a 
type completely distinct from them. In part they go inversely as 
the others. They have for example minima in the years 1901 and 
1902 and in the year 1905. The curve for the first decade group has 
besides this a strong minimum in the year 1898. Furthermore they 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



63 



have a maximum in the years 1903 and 1904, and particularly the 
curve for the second decade group shows a well marked maximum 
for the year 1903. For the later years after 1905 the curves show 
more similarity to the curve for the 10° longitude field to the east- 
w^ard 50° to 59° west longitude and this, one might say, is to a 
certain extent a transition field, to the fields further east. These 
different types are shown distinctly in figures 21 and 22. 

Turning now from the consideration of these dissimilarities which 
belong' to the curves for the most western and most eastern region 
to the continents, and considering all the results from the whole 



?3 1900 1 2 5't56789 10 




Figure 29. Curves for the anomalies of surface temperatures from 
February 3 to March 4. 

I. Mean of all six 10° longitude fields, Channel to New York. 
11. Mean of three most easterly 10° longitude fields, Channel to New York. 

III. Mean of all twelve 10° longitude fields, Portugal to the Azores. 

IV. Mean of three most westerly 10° longitude fields, Channel to New York. 

V. Mean of the curves — ^ and IV. 



assembly of fields within our investigated region as a whole, it is 
apparent that certain great features are common to the great majority 
of these curves. Hence we may conclude that if we should take 
the mean of the temperature anomalies for each decade group for 
each year for all the thousands of observations which we have col- 
lected within this region, the results would yield a curve which 
would exhibit the true condition for the whole North Atlantic Ocean. 
We have found the mean of the anomalies for the average tem- 
peratures for each year and for each decade group for the six 10° 



64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

longitude fields between the Channel and New York. The results 
are given in table 2-W and shown graphically in the curve W, 
figure 48. 

We have also assembled the values for both decade groups 
and obtained thereby yearly mean values of the temperature 
anomalies from all of our decades. This is also given in table 2-W 
and in the heavy curve of figure 48. 

The corresponding average values for the first decade groups for 
the twelve southerly 10° fields are given in table 3-W, and in figure 
29, curve in. The agreement between these different curves is 
excellent. If we take the mean of the values of the twelve southerly 
fields (see fig. 24, curve III) for the first decade and combine with 
it those for the three most easterly 10° fields, that is, between 10° 
and 40° west longitude (shown in figure 24, curve II of the northern 
region, Channel to New York), we obtain values which give the 
anomalies of the average temperature of this part of the ocean 
eastward of 40° west longitude in the first decade group. Again, 
if we take the mean values for each year between these results 
and the mean values for the three most westerly 10° longitude 
fields, that is, between 40° and 70° west longitude (shown in fig. 29, 
curve IV), we obtain thereby the average anomalies for this whole 
region of the Atlantic Ocean in its entire breadth. The values 
found in this way for the first decade group are given in the follow- 
ing table and graphically in the curve V in figure 29. 

ANOMALIES OF MEAN TEMPERATURES ^ 

1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 

10—39° W } 0.2 —0.4 —0.1 0.1 —0.0 —0.4 —1.2 0.2 —0.1 o.S 0.7 0.3 —0.1 

Northern Route ( 

10—39^ VV. ( jj ^ —0.3 0.2 0.2 —0.1 —0.1 —0.7 0.1 —0.1 0.2 0.1 —0.1 0.3 

37~44 '>'■ I . — 

Mean: 0.2 — 0.3 o.i o.r — o.i —0.2 — i.o 0.2 — o.i 0.4 0.4 o.i o.i 

40 — 69° W. ( O.I —1. 2 0.2 — 0.1 —0.2 — o 8 —I.I —0.4 1.00.40.5—0.2 0.6 

Northern Route f — — 

Mean of the two last lines 0.2 —0.8 0.1 0.0 —0.1 — 0.5 — i.o — 0.1 o.S 0.4 0.5 — 0.0 0.4 

This treatment yields a curve very similar to the others which 
represent the variations of the surface temperatures of the North 
Atlantic Ocean in the coldest part of the year during our investi- 
gated period of- thirteen years. 

Characteristic features of these curves are as follows : 
A great depression in the years 1903 and 1904, a lesser depression 
in the year 1899, and two maximum periods in the year 1900 to 

^ The values of the anomalies were computed as we always do with two deci- 
mals, although we have given here but the first decimal. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATUBE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 65 

1902 and 1906 to 1908. These features appear very distinctly in 
most of the curves compared both in figure 21 and in figure 22. In 
the latter maximum period 1906 to 1908, the temperature was on 
the whole considerably higher than in the earlier period of 1902, 
not only in February but also in March-April. This, however, was 
not the case for the average temperatures for the twelve southern 
fields (see fig. 29, curve III) where the temperature of the last 
maximum period was lower than that of the first maximum period 
of 1902. This was yet more marked in the most southeasterly fields 
between 10° and 20° west longitude and particularly between 37° 
and 39° north latitude, as shown in figure 28. A similar depression 
of temperature from the first to the last maximum period finds 
representation in the curves for the 10° longitude fields of the 
Danish observations northerly of 50° north latitude between 20° 
and 40° west longitude (see figs. 31 and 32). 

As already remarked, the results for the regions of the sea near- 
est to the continental coasts on both sides of the ocean indicate that 
the continents influence the variations of the surface temperatures 
of those regions of the ocean adjacent to them. It may therefore 
be better to omit all these fields between 10° and 20° west longitude 
and between 60° and 70° west longitude in determining the mean 
value of the variations from year to year of the surface tempera- 
tures of the coldest part of the year representative of the Northern 
Atlantic Ocean. 

Table 2-W gives the anomalies for the average temperatures 
which we obtain in this way for the four middle 10° fields between 
20° and 60° west longitude of the northern region. These are 
given for both decade groups separately as well as combined, and 
ire represented in figure 49 in the curves marked W. 

Table 3-W, as well as curve S in figure 30, give the anomalies o'f 
the average temperatures for February for the eight 10° fields 
between 20° and 40° west longitude of the southern region. 

The upper full curve N of figure 30 represents the anomalies of 
the average temperatures for February for the four 10° fields 
between 20° and 60° west longitude of the stretch of the ocean from 
the Channel to New York, while the dotted curve gives the cor- 
responding temperatures for the two 10° longitude fields between 
20° and 40° of west longitude, which therefore correspond in 
longitude to the eight southerly fields whose temperature anomalies 
are shown in curve S. We notice that the agreement between the 
curves for these southerly fields and for the northerly fields is 
extraordinarily close. 



66 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 



We may therefore reasonably assume that these curves are typical 
representations of the real temperature variations of the ocean sur- 
face of the Middle Atlantic Ocean for the period which we have 
investigated. We may also assume that the great and characteris- 
tic features of these deviations are common to the whole ocean 
surface. 

The results do not support the conclusion of Petersen that the 
variations in the surface temperatures for the different months of 
the year in the eastern and western parts of the Atlantic Ocean 
tend to go in opposite directions with respect to an axis at 40° 
west longitude. Referring to curves II and III . for the ocean 
eastward of 40° west longitude and curve IV of the ocean west of 



99 190i 




o — o — = 20-S9''n<, ifO-ita'N. 

0---°-- -o20--39°yV., ^3-'f8°N. 

Figure 30. Curves of the anomalies of the surface temperatures for 
February 3 to March 4. 

40° west longitude in figure 29, we see that the principal features of 
these curves are the same. As shown in figure 40 we find only in 
isolated years, as February, 1905, and March-April, 1899, such an 
opposition of temperatures as Petersen assumes. 

If we now consider the observed variations in the surface tem- 
peratures in the 10° longitude fields for the Danish observations 
northerly of 50° north latitude, we find here in the middle region 
of the ocean between 20° and 40° west the same great general 
features in the variations for February as for March and April. 
This result is shown by our curves for 20° to 29° west longitude and 
30° and 39° west longitude in figures 31 and 2)^. These may be 
compared for example with the curves of figure 20 and figures 29, 
30 and 48-W. A great depression may be seen in the February 
curves for the year 1899 and a still greater one, in the year 1904. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



67 



In the year 1901 the temperatures were lower than in the years 
1900 and 1902, a condition which we find dupHcated in the average 
curves for the fields further southward as shown in figure 48. A 
rather poor agreement is found in the latter parts of the curves 
where the anomalies for the time interval between 1905 and 1907 
seem to be on the whole ver}- much less than they are in the fields 
further south. 

In March-April, 1898, the temperature was fairly low. This 
does not correspond to the conditions of the ocean surface tempera- 
tures in the fields further southward. However we find that the 
air temperature for March-April in these southern fields averaged 
distinctly low in the year 1898 (see fig. 49). Most of the curves 



lv)8 9'-' hJiM 1 



9 1900 




Figure 31. 

for March-April show in the years 1903, 1904. and 1905 a great 
depression. In the later years 1905 to 1907 and 1908 the tempera- 
ture in the northerly Danish fields was decidedly low. This is 
shown by the curves in figure 32. 

The temperature curves for the two most easterly 10° longitude 
fields of the Danish observational region show totally different 
characteristics as well for February as also for March-April from 
the above mentioned curves. In particular in March-April they 
go inversely and are closely related with the curves of the most 
easterly 10° longitude fields farther south. 10° to 19° west longi- 
tude in the region of the Channel to New York, and particularly 
with the 10° to 19° west longitude region between Portugal and the 
Azores. It appears therefore as if this difference between the varia- 
tions of temperature in the most easterly part of the North Atlantic 
and the variations in the fields further out in the ocean is charac- 



68 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 



teristic of the whole stretch from 37° north to 60° north. The 
curves for the fields 10° to 19° west longitude take transition forms 
between the curves for the field 0° to 19° west longitude and 
those of the more westerlv resrion. 



VARIATIONS OF THE SURFACE TEMPERATURES FOR THE COLDEST 

PARTS OF THE YEAR COMPARED WITH THE VARIATIONS OF THE 

YEARLY TEMPERATURES IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SEA 

If, as we have already remarked, the surface temperature in the 
North Atlantic Ocean during the coldest parts of the winter and 
towards the end of it may be assumed for provisional purposes to 



s'm 



WW. 



ag"^ 




Jo-3fim 



Figure 32. 

Figures 31 and 32. Curves for the surface temperatures of the 10° longitude 
fields of the Danish observations north of 50° north latitude between 0° and 
10° west longitude and 58° and 60° north latitude, between 10° and 20° west 
longitude and 56° and 60° north latitude, between 20° and 30° west longitude 
and 53° and 58° north latitude, between 30° and 40° west longitude and 
58° and 54° north latitude, for February (fig. 31) and for March 16 to April 15 
(fig- 32). 

be closely the same as that of the underlying masses of water to 
considerable depths below, we may draw the following conclusions : 
The variations in the surface temperatures during the coldest sea- 
son of the year are not merely superficial and accidental deviations 
in a thin surface layer, but in part, at least, indicate deep seated 
changes in the temperature of the upper water-masses of the ocean. 
These changes must certainly continue through a long time interval 
and not simply in the brief intervals embraced in our observations. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



69 



Our curves then show not merely the variations during the tv^o 
months of our period of investigation from the beginning of Febru- 
ary to the middle of April, but also certain great features which 
remained for a long period unchanged. 

It is therefore not improbable that at least the principal features 
of these variations occur in the average yearly temperatures for 
the surface in our fields, although of course in the yearly curves 
the variations would be smaller and more smoothed out. 

We have had no opportunity to collect the observational material 
required to investigate this matter. The above mentioned Danish 
observations north of 50° north latitude and those of Petersen and 




Figure 23- Curves for the yearly means of temperature anomalies in the 
four 10° longitude fields of the Danish observations (see figs. 31 and 32). Full- 
drawn curves indicate the mean of the years running from September to 
August, the dotted curves the mean of the calendar years. 

Liepe furnish, however, a means of studying the question some- 
what more closely. 

In figure 33, curves I to IV give a representation of the yearly 
mean for the four above-mentioned Danish fields. The full drawn 
line shows the mean for the twelve months from the ist of Septem- 
ber of the previous year to the end of August of the given year, 
while the dotted curves show the mean values for each calendar 
year. If one compares these curves with the curves for February 
and March-April (see figs. 31 and 32) an unmistakable similarity 
between the characters of the single curves is seen. The similarity 
is even better than the incompleteness of the material would lead 
one to expect. It is also clear that a thorough and analogous dis- 
similarity exists between the types of curves for the eastward, and 
the two western fields. 



70 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



The opposition between the most eastern field, o° to 9° west longi- 
tude, and the most western fields, 20° to 29° and 30° to 39° west 
longitude, is sharply indicated in the curves of figure 33, numbers 
I, III and IV. Curve II for the middle field 10° to 19° west longi- 
tude shows a transition form. 

The agreement between the yearly curves and the February and 
March-April curves is distinctly indicated by taking the mean for 
all four fields for February and March- April and also for the 
years and comparing them as is shown in figure 34. The curve 
of mean values for February and March-April combined, which is 
drawn as a full line in the figure, shows particularly well the close 
parallelism with the curve for the year (September-August). 

Figure 35 shows the variations of the yearly temperature (Sep- 
tember-August) for Petersen's 1° fields. We note that the curves 



8 9 mil 




Figure 34. Curves of the temperature mean for all four Danish fields 
(compare figs. 31 to 33) for February, March-April (upper lines) and for 
the whole year (lower lines). 



for the station No. i and westward to No. 7 show considerable 
similarity each to each and form so to speak a certain type, which 
however, gradually changes from the east toward the west. This 
imparts to these 'curves an impression of trustworthiness. The 
curves for the stations westward of station 8 have little or no 
similarity each to each and this is very likely due in the greater 
part to the accidental errors of the observational material. 

On the whole there is a certain similarity apparent between the 
yearly curves for Petersen's stations i to 6 and the yearly curves 
for the Danish fields in corresponding longitudes (see fig. 33). 
The reader may compare figure 35, station i, with figure 33 I, 
figure 35, stations 3 and 4, with figure 33 III, or figure 35, stations 
5, 6, 7, with figure 33 IV. 

There prevails also a strongly marked similarity between the 
yearly curves for Petersen's most easterly station, the curve for 
February for the same station (see fig. 36, P St. I) and our curves 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



71 



for February and March-April for the corresponding most easterly 
fields as shown in figure 36. We have taken the yearly value for 
1903 from Petersen's own drawing (1912). The correspondence 
between the )'early curve and the curve for February and March 
for Petersen's station No. i is obviously not so good as the agree- 
ment between these yearly curves and the February curve for our 
most easterly fields between 10° and 14° west longitude. See also 
the curve for the field between 10° and 20° west longitude, shown 



)898 99 1300 1 




12 



Figure 35. Petersen's stations I to XII along the shipping course Channel 
to New York between 11° and 60° west longitude. Curves for the yearly 
anomalies of the surface temperatures computed from September i of the 
previous year to August 31 of the given year. 

in figure 20, 10° to 19° west, and see also the fields south of it 
between 10° and 20° west longitude, 43° and 44° north latitude 
shown in figure 36, 10° to 19° west. The reason for this we attri- 
bute to the fact that our curves, which are determined from much 
more extensive observational material, are more trustworthy than 
the monthly curves for Petersen's station No. i. 

It is noticeable that the yearly curve for Petersen's most westerly 
station, that is to Say, No. 12 at 66° west longitude between 40° 
and 41° north latitude, showing as it does a maximum in the year 



7^ 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



1900, an absolute minimum in the year 1898, as well as low tempera- 
ture in the year 1902, exhibits great similarity with our February 
curve for the most westerly 10° field at 60° to 69° west longitude, 
as shown in figure 20, 60 to 69° W. Petersen's most westerly yearly 
curve has also similarity with the February and March curve for 
his station No. 12 and also with the February and March curve 
for the mean value of his two most westerly stations, stations 11 
and 12, as shown in figure 13, 11 and 12. 



.I898991S00 1 





8°N.Z5''W., 



vm 



Figure 37. Liepe's stations I to 
VIII. Curves for the anomalies of 
the yearly temperatures computed 
from September i of the previous 
year to August 31 of the given year. 



Figure 2,6. Curves for the anoma- 
lies of the surface temperature. L. 
St. 1 for Liepe's station, I for the 
year (September to August) and for 
February to March. P. St. I for 
Petersen's station I for the year 
(September to August) and for Feb- 
ruary and March, 10° to 13° W., for 
the two 2° fields between 10° and 
14° west longitude and between 49° 
and 50° north latitude, of our north- 
erly course Channel to New York, 
10° to 19° W. for the most north- 
easterly 10° longitude field between 
10° and 20° west longitude, 43° and 
45° north latitude of the course Por- 
tugal to the Azores. 

The mean value for all of Petersen's stations for February shows 
similar variations with the corresponding mean value for all of 
our fields between the English Channel and New York (see 
fig. 29, I). 

Since Liepe's stations lie along the east side of the Atlantic Ocean 
where the distance between the isotherms is great, one would ex- 
pect that the yearly curves would exhibit a good correspondence 
with the February and March curves for these stations. This 
expectation is realized for the most part of the cases. In figure 37 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 73 

we have given the curves for September and August of Liepe's 
different stations. It is apparent that there is a great degree of 
similarity between the curves each to each. They show a gradual 
change from the north toward the south which indicates that they 
actually represent the conditions fairly well. There is a good 
similarity between the yearly curve for Liepe's station i, his Febru- 
ary curve for the same station, the yearly curve for Petersen's 
station i and the February curve for our most easterly field as 
shown in figure 36. 

The similarity between the yearly curve for Liepe's station 3, his 
February and March curves at the same station at 35° north latitude 
and 13° west longitude, and our February curve for the correspond- 
ing field which is a little further north between 37° and 38° north 
latitude, and between 10° and 20° west longitude is also very good, 
as shown in figure 38. 

The yearly curve for Liepe's station 2, at 42° north latitude 9° 
west longitude, shown in figure 37, shows less similarity with the 
February and March curves for the same station (see fig. 15), but 
the February curve for the nearest of our fields, see figure 28 and 
figure I, is more similar. Liepe's station 2 lies so near the coast 
that the surface temperature of it is influenced by this proximity. 
The agreement between the yearly curves and particularly the March 
curves for stations 4 and 5 and the February curves for stations 
6, 7, and 8 is also very good. 

SIMILARITY OF THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS OVER GREAT REGIONS 

OF THE OCEAN. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EASTERLY AND 

MIDDLE PARTS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN 

The yearly curves for Liepe's stations, for Petersen's easterly 
stations, and for the mo'st easterly Danish fields are very similar to 
one another for the short time interval here examined, 1898 to 1903. 
Liepe has published in his treatise of 191 1 the curves for all the 
stations for the whole time 1883 to 1903. They show also for the 
years before 1898 a great similarity each to each. We may there- 
fore draw the conclusion that the variations in the yearly tempera- 
tures over the whole eastern part of the North Atlantic Ocean from 
60° north latitude to 30° north latitude (Liepe's station 4) or even 
down to 18° north latitude (Liepe's station 6, fig. 37) are in their 
principal features about the same. This is also confirmed by the 
twelve-monthly consecutively smoothed temperature curves for dif- 
ferent stations which we shall refer to later (see fig. 56). 



74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

For this easterly part of the ocean we have furthermore found 
that the temperature variations of the coldest seasons of the year, 
February and March, are very similar to the variations of the yearly 
means themselves. This holds as we have said above, (see figs. 33 
and 34) for the easterly Danish fields. We believe that we may 
safely assume that this is a general rule for the North Atlantic 
Ocean. 

If we return again to Liepe's most southerly stations, we find some 
relations of considerable interest. The yearly curves for his sta- 
tions 7 and 8, at 8° and 2° north latitude, which lie midway of the 
Atlantic Ocean between Africa and South America have a certain 
similarity with those for his more northerly stations, but the maxi- 
mum is displaced to the year 1901, whereas in the trade wind region 
it fell in the year 1900, and still further north, even in the year 



1808 93 1500 i 2 3 
-1 r 







Figure 38. Curves for the anomalies of the surface temperatures for 
Liepe's station 3 (L. St. 3) for the year (September i to August 31) for 
February and March as well as for our fields between 37° and 39° north 
latitude and 10° and 20° west latitude for February. 

1899. It is surprising that the similarity goes so far when one 
considers that Liepe's stations 7 and 8 lie in aonther ocean current. 
Station 7 lies, at least in the northern summer, in the equatorial coun- 
ter stream where this current in August and September, under the 
influence of the southwest monsoon, reaches its greatest develop- 
ment. On the other hand, in the time interval from December to 
May the station is penetrated by the northerly equatorial current 
which reaches its strongest development in March. The station 8 
lies in 2° to 3° north latitude, 29^° to 30^° west longitude, within 
the region of the south equatorial stream. Only from February 
to the middle of April does this current often show itself southerly 
of 3° north latitude and it reaches its most considerable intensity 
in July. 

Yearly curves for these two tropical stations show nevertheless 
a special type and have as we have said much similarity with the 
February curves for the same stations (see fig. 15). They have 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



75 



also a certain similarity with the February curves especially in 
our io° longitude fields between 20° and 50° west longitude, shown 
in figures 20 and 30, where we find the maximum in the year 1901 
at a temperature sinking gradually from this time on toward 1903. 
However, the tropical curves show no minimum in the year 1899, 
although there seems to be a tendency in both curves towards a 



J900 12 3 4 5 6 7 



9 10 11 12 a 



5~15°N. 25-35°W. 

FEBR. 

nXrs 







A = 37-38°N. 
-^ 20- 29°W. 



JJ-2S'W. 3j-^^^yv. 



^^ri:sR. 



'°' PORTO RICO 
0"^ 25-7° 



J-AN-DSCA-O-5'^ 



1900 1 



10 11 (? 13 



FiGTJRE 39. Curves for the surface temperatures (in the year and in 
February and March), for the Dutch 10° squares from 5° to 15° north and 
from 15° to 25° north. The temperature anomalies for our fields A and B 
and the air temperature for the year at San Juan (Porto Rico). 



lower temperature in this year. This comes most strongly to view 
in the curves for February, and the March curves have minima in 
the year 1899. It may be remarked as we have earlier said thai 
Liepe's two tropical stations, 7 and 8, are near the middle of the 
Atlantic Ocean, as are also our fields between 20° and 50° west 
longitude and between 37° and 50° north latitude. The distance 



76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

between these two stations and our fields is, however, very great, 
and from the station 7 it is over 3,100 kilometers to our most 
southerly fields, or about as much as from the Channel to New- 
foundland (see pi. 15, fields VII, VIII, 3-5, 7-14; see also fig. 56). 

It is of great interest to compare the results with the observa- 
tions in the 10° square fields between 5° and 15° north latitude 
and 25° and 35° west longitude, shown in plate 15, field 20 as given 
for the years 1900-1913 in the Dutch " Monthly Meteorological 
Data for 10° Squares in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans " (Konink- 
lijk Niederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut, No. 107-a Utrecht 
1914). In general the fields of 10° square are too large to show 
the true conditions by merely taking mean values of all observa- 
tions within these fields without reference to their local situation. 
Moreover the observational material itself within these great fields 
is in most of the fields too meagre to give satisfactory values. In 
the 10° square field which we have referred to the number of 
observations in most months is about 10 per month but varying 
between 5 and .30, sometimes more. We must on this account 
look for some irregularities in the mean values for the different 
months. We have computed the mean yearly temperatures for 
this field, both for the calendar year January to December and 
for the twelve months September to August. The values obtained 
are graphically given in the topmost curve of figure 39. The heavy 
full drawn line is the yearly curve for September to August and 
the heavy dotted line, the curve for the calendar year. We have 
also given the curves of the February temperature (weak full drawn 
lines) as well as of the March temperature (weak dotted lines) 
for the same field. Under these curves we have drawn the curves 
B and A. These relate to our two most southerly fields of cor- 
responding longitudes between 20° and 30° west longitude, which 
are about 2500 kilometers further north (see pi. 15, fields 13 and 
14). The curves are for February. One must admit that between 
these curves and the February and March curves for the tropical 
field there exist with certain exceptions a very great similarity. 
It is apparent that the variations in the tropical fields are much 
greater than in our fields further north. 

The two yearly curves for the tropical field have a characteristic 
form similar to our February and March curves particularly for 
10° longitude field between 20° and 40° west longitude (see fig. 
30) . This similarity would be yet more striking if we should com- 
pare the tropical yearly curve with our smoothed curves of figures 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC J J 

21 and 22. There is, however, this notable difference that the 
tropical yearly curves reach an absolute maximum in the year 1901 
which exceeds that attained in the later maximum period between 
1907 and 1909, whereas our more northerly curves, Channel to New 
York, figure 20, 30N give their highest values in this later maxi- 
mum period as we have already said. The curves for our more 
southerly field between 10° and 30° west (see figs. 28 and 39A 
and B), particularly for the most southeasterly fields, are similar 
to the tropical curves in this respect. It appears as if in these 
years a depression of temperature o'ccurred in the southeast, but 
the strong minimum in the year 1904 is found in all curves alike. 

We may add that the curves for February and March for the 
tropical field have a certain similarity with the February and March 
curve for the 10° field 30° to 39° west longitude of the Danish obser- 
vations between 50° and 54° north latitude. Compare for instance 
figure 39 with figures 31 and 32. The February curves for both 
fields show the same depression in 1904, a rise in 1905 and again 
a depression in 1906, but there is a dissimilarity in 1907 as also in 
1902. The March curves show the same great depression in 1903, 
1904, 1905, a rise in 1906, depression in 1907, but a dissimilarity in 
1908.^ All this points to a dependence and congruence in the varia- 
tions over great stretches of the Middle Atlantic Ocean, similar to 
those which we have already called attention to in the more eastern 
region. This dependence is perhaps more clearly shown by compari- 
son of the twelve-monthly consecutively smoothed temperature curves 
for the middle stations of Petersen between 22° and 47° west longi- 
tude, shown in figure 56, and the western Danish stations (see 
fig"- 55) J the tropical stations of Liepe (see fig. 56), and others to 
which we shall later refer. 

Of the three other 10° squares treated in the Dutch report only 
the most northwesterly field between 15° and 25° west longitude, 
shown in plate 15, field 19, contains throughout a sufficient num- 
ber of observations to warrant the discussion of it. For this field 
we have computed the yearly means as before, and we give both 
curves in figure 39. Of these the full heavy curve indicates the 
yearly mean for the 12 months, September to August, and the 
heavy dotted curve the yearly mean for the calendar year. In this 
figure we give for the same field also the February curve in weak 



^The February curve for the Dutch field 15° to 25° north, 35° to 45° west, 
shows a depression in 1907 (see fig. 39) and in this year more similarity with, 
the curve of figure },2. 



78 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. /O 



60 „50 'iQ 30 ^2a ,10 „ 
-69" -59° -hS" -39' ^9° -19° 




'%'i9'%9'^3S'i9'%'W.. 



Figure 40. The anomalies for the surface temperatures for February and 
March-April for the 10° longitude fields along the route Channel to New 
York for each year. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 79 

full drawn lines and the March curve in a weak dotted line. These 
curves have on the whole considerable less similarity with ours 
though the February curve for the years 1900 to 1905 has the 
same great features as shown in our curves. The curves for 
these Dutch fields show on the whole after the year 1904 uncom- 
monly low temperatures. 

The lowest curve of figure 39 gives the yearly temperatures of 
the air in San Juan, Porto Rico. Between this curve and the yearly 
curve September to August for the Dutch field 15° to 25° north 
latitude and 35° to 45° west longitude there exists clear similarity, 
though with some exceptions, particularly in the year 1905. But 
in this year the February curve for the same field shows a rise simi- 
lar to that which we found in several other curves. The curve for 
Porto Rico shows in a still more marked degree the tendency to 
sink from 1901 to 1910. 

DIFFERENCE OF TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE WESTERN, 
MIDDLE, AND EASTERN PARTS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC 

If we consider the run of the temperature anomalies in the dif- 
ferent 10° fields from west towards east in the course of the period 
of observation, we find on the whole a great regularity. Figure 
40 gives an assembly of the yearly curves for the temperature 
anomalies of the surface water for both decade groups for the 
whole ocean stretch from the Channel to New York. The same 
curves for the dififerent years are also given in plates 16 to 40, 
which also include the corresponding curves for the more southerly 
region between Portugal and New York shown on the left. The 
minimum years 1899, IQ^S' ^^^ 1904 give curves with well marked 
concavity (see fig. 40) whereas the maximum years, for example 
1901 and 1908, show convex curves. This holds particularly for 
the month of February. This circumstance finds its natural ex- 
planation in the fact that the yearly variations in the middle part 
of the ocean are relatively much greater than those of the more 
eastern part. There happens, in other words, in minimum years 
a rise of the curves towards the eastern fields, starting from the 
middle fields. If we take the difiference between the anomalies for 
one of the middle fields and the most easterly fields, we find there- 
fore a negative value in the minimum years and a positive one in 
the maximum years. For the month of February we have obtained 
the anomalies of such difi^erences of the surface temperatures for 
one of the fields 30° to 39° west longitude minus the surface tem- 



8o 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 



perature for the corresponding field 10° to 19° west longitude for 
the steamer route Channel to New York, and also for the region 
Portugal to Azores. The result of this computation is seen in 
figure 41 which gives well marked minima in the cold years 1899 
and 1903, and maxima in the warmer years, 1901 and 1908. The 
year 1904 shows no minimum for the Azores field, because in this 
year it was cold both in the east and in the west, but along the 
steamer route Channel to New York it was on the other hand con- 
siderably colder in the western regions that in the eastern ones and 
hence the anomaly difference which we have been speaking of is 
negative and rather great for this more northerly region. 

If one compares these differences in temperature of the Atlantic 
Ocean in the middle (30° to 39° west longitude) and the east side 
(10° to 19° west longitude) with the February temperatures at 



1898 ?.q 1900 I 




Figure 41. Curves for the difference between the temperature anomalies 
for one of the fields 30° to 39° west longitude and one of the most easterly 
fields 10° to 19° west longitude along the route Channel to New York 
(curve 44° to 49° N.) and in the region Portugal to the Azores (the four 
other curves). 

Liepe's station i, he finds the pecuHarity that the temperature at 
Liepe's station i is high when the difference is small or negative, 
and vice versa. In figure 42 we give the average curves for the 
above mentioned differences. The full drawn curve shows the 
mean of the four southerly station curves of figure 41 and the dotted 
curve gives the mean of all five curves of figure 41. Under these 
curves is given in the same figure the February curve for Liepe's 
station i with the scale of temperatures inverted. We see that the 
agreement between this curve and the above mentioned mean curves 
is very striking. The yearly temperature curve for Liepe's station i 
(from September to the end of August) is also shown in the same 
figure. Since this yearly curve, as we have said, has great similarity 
to the February curve, we should also expect a certain agreement 
with the difference curve. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



8l 



In the same figure is given a curve for the temperatures of the 
air for February in Hamburg (according to Thraen, 191 5). The 
scale is here also inverted. The agreement between this curve and 
the February curve for Liepe's station i and also for the curves 



. j898 99 1000 12 3 4-567 




1898 99 1900 I 



Figure 42. Curves for : Average difference between the temperature 
anomalies of the fields 30° to 39° west longitude and the fields 10° to 19° west 
longitude (the upper curves are the means of the curves of figure 41) for 
February; anomalies of the surface temperatures for February and for the 
year (September to August) at Liepe's station i; anomalies of the air tem- 
perature for February and the calendar year in Hamburg; anomalies of the 
air temperature for the calendar year in northwest England, on the English 
Channel, m Vliessingen, and Borkum ; water level for the calendar year in 
(ajedser, Korsor, Esbjerg, and Swinemunde. For the temperature curves 
and the water level curves the scales are inverted 



82 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



of difference between the surface temperature of the Atlantic 
Ocean in its middle part and its east side is on the whole very 
good. The principal exception occurs in the year 1908 when the 
February temperature in Hamburg- shows a rise instead of a fall, 
while the difference between the temperature of the Atlantic Ocean 
has a maximum. Apart from this the run of the variations of 




Figure 43. Curves : I : Difference between the temperature anomalies for 
Petersen's stations 5 and 6 and the temperature anomalies of his stations 
I and 2 for February. II : Corresponding differences between our fields 30° 
to 39° west longitude and 10° to 19° west longitude. Ill : Anomalies of the 
surface temperature in February and the year (September to August) at 
Liepe's station i. IV: Anomalies of the air temperature in Hamburg for 
February, for the year September to August, and for calendar year. V : 
Average water level in Swinemunde for the calendar year and for February. 
VI : Average water level for the calendar year on the Swedish coast. VII : 
Average water level for the calendar year in Ijmuiden, Esbjerg, and Gjedser. 
VIII : Average water level for the calendar year in Stavanger and Narvik. 

these curves is in complete agTeement. Since the variations in 
the air temperature in a single mo'nth is naturally much greater 
than the variations in the surface temperature of the ocean, the 
scale of the February curve for Hamburg is taken one-fourth as 
large as the others, as shown to the left in figure 42. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 83 

In this figure are also given the yearly temperatures in Hamburg 
for the interval September to August as a dotted curve and in 
figure 43 for January to December as a dotted curve, the scale 
being indicated at the right. As we should expect, the agreement 
is here not so good. For purposes of comparison, we have given 
in this figure also the curves for the temperature of the air in 
northwestern England (N. W. England) ; for the stations around 
the English Channel (E. Kanal) ; for Vliessingen and for Borkum. 
We can detect in the figure a gradual transition in these several 
curves. 

If it is true that an agreement in the above mentioned sense 
exists between the difference in the surface temperature of the mid- 
dle and eastern side of the Atlantic Ocean and the surface tempera- 
ture in the proximity to the Channel at Liepe's station i, then this 
correspondence should appear by comparison of Petersen s material 
with Liepe's material, even though Petersen's material, as we have 
already said, is not particularly complete on account of too small 
fields having been used. The uppermost full drawn curve of figure 
43, curve I, shows the difference for February between the anomalies 
of the mean temperature of Petersen's stations 5 and 6 and the 
anomalies of the mean temperature of his stations i and 2. These 
stations correspond to our two 10° fields 30° to 39° west longitude 
and 10° to 19° west longitude. The scale of this curve is inverted. 
At the upper right hand corner, covering the interval from 1898 to 
1910, curve II, dotted, shows the difference : Surface temperature 
30° to 39° west longitude minus the surface temperature 10° to 
19° west longitude from all our fields combined. The full drawn 
curve III in figure 43 gives the temperature anomalies in February 
for Liepe's station i. The full drawn curve IV gives the air tem- 
perature in Hamburg in February according to Thraen (1915). 
Between these curves there is well marked correspondence, particu- 
larly in the latter part after 1892, when as we should expect the 
observations become more complete and trustworthy. The curves 
for the mean temperatures for the year (September to August) 
for the surface of the ocean at Liepe's station i and for the air in 
Hamburg are also shown in figure 43 (III and IV, dotted). These 
curves also show good correspondence although with more excep- 
tions. Particularly the yearly temperatures September to August, 
1903, at Hamburg is too low, and shows at this point very little cor- 
respondence. The yearly temperature for the calendar year 1903 
is on the other hand somewhat high. The average temperature of 
the calendar years show, moreover, a marked minimum in the year 
1902 (see the dotted line IV in figure 43). 



84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. /O 

VARIATIONS IN THE HEIGHT OF THE WATER OF THE COASTS OF THE 
NORTH SEA AND THE BALTIC 

Another very interesting correspondence may be considered at 
this point. In figure 42, we give at the bottom some curves which 
show the variations in the mean height of the water for the year 
at the different stations on the coasts of the North and the Baltic Seas. 
For the years 1900 to 1909, the values of the uppermost of these 
curves (for Esbjerg Korsor and Gjedser) are taken from Brehmer 
in Ann. d. Hydr., May, 1913. These tables do not, however, extend 
back further than the year 1900. On the other hand Rosen (1903) 
has published for the year 1887 to 1910 tables for a number of 
Swedish Baltic Sea stations. These show a well marked maximum 
in all the stations for the year 1899. We have computed the mean 
from all these Swedish results for the years 1898, 1899 ^^^ 1900. 
The difference between 1900 and the two previous vears we have 
employed to piece out in figure 42 the results of Gjedser o'ver these 
two years. The two lowest curves give the variations in the 
height of the water at Swinemunde according to Brehmer m Ann. 
d. Hydr., April 1914, page 207. The full drawn curve gives the 
mean height of the water as indicated in Brehmer's column i. The 
dotted curve gives the mean height of the water after correction 
for tides (see Brehmer's column 17). The scale indicates centi- 
meters and millimeters for these curves of the variations in the 
height of the water is inverted. We see a well-marked maximum 
in the years 1899 and 1903 and a well-marked minimum in 1901 
and 1908. These are the same characteristic years of which we 
have spoken above so often. A comparison between the curves 
for the height of the water in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea 
and the curves for the temperature differences in the Atlantic Ocean 
show therefore a quite remarkable agreement in all years almost 
without exception. In figure 43 we have extended this comparison to 
the earlier years 1884 to 1898. Curve V shows the height in the water 
in Swinemunde according to Brehmer (1914) curve VI, the mean 
height of the water at the stations on the Swedish coast according 
to Rosen (1903, p. 4). Curve I shows the temperature difference 
of Petersen's stations 5 and 6 minus i and 2 ; curve III shows the 
surface temperature at Liepe's station No. i, and curve IV gives 
the air temperature in Hamburg. Correspondence between all 
these curves is clear. The only considerable difference occurs in 
the year 1895, when the height of the water should have showed a 
minimum in order to correspond with the temperatures. There is 
also some lack of correspondence in 1894. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 85 

In the same figure 43 we have shown also the yearly curves for 
the height of the water in Ijmuiden on the coast of Holland, also in 
Esbjerg and at Gjedser. These results are given in curve VII. 
As we see, the curves for the Baltic Sea, Gjedser, and Swine- 
munde agree excellently with our curve for the temperature dif- 
ference in the Atlantic Ocean, while on the other hand the curves 
for the north seacoast do not agree so well, but among them the 
best agreement is found for Esbjerg. The deviations grow in the 
westerly direction along the German coast by Norderney, Nord- 
teich, and the Holland coast, but we give here only the curve for 
Ijmuiden. There is gradually developed toward the west a maxi- 
mum in the year 1906, whose appearance can already be seen in the 
curve for Esbjerg, but that in Den Helder is far more considerably 
developed. 

It is obvious that while the curves of the height of the water for 
the 3^ear, particularly in the Baltic Sea, are in complete agreement 
with our curve for the temperature difference in the Atlantic Ocean 
in February, only very slight correspondence exists between these 
curves and the monthly curve for the height of the water in the 
North Sea and Baltic Sea in P^ebruary or March (see the dotted 
curve, fig. 44 V). 

As we thought it worth while to compare the variations in the 
height of the water along the northerly coast with the variations 
which we have spoken of in the North and Baltic Seas, we under- 
took with the amiable assistance of the Norwegian Geodetic Sur- 
vey to make an abstract of the observations of the height of the 
water at the Norwegian stations. At two stations, Stavanger and 
Narvik, the observations extended over such a long period of years 
that we could make such a comparison very favorably. We com- 
puted the yearly means from the monthly mean values, and using 
as normals the mean value of the height of the water for the whole 
year as computed from all the observations, we determined the 
anomalies in the height of the water for each year. The anomalies 
found are expressed in millimeters in the following table and also 
as curve VIII in figure 43, which is the lowest curve there. 

ANOMALIES OF THE HEIGHT OF THE WATER IN MILLIMETERS 

1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 
Stavanger 12 — 17 7 — 61 57 11 — 7 

1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 
Narvik — 2 28 43 — 16 27 — 79 



86 ' SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

The Stavanger observations make a homogeneous series from the 
year 1899 to 1905, and those for Narvik extend from 1905 to 1910. 
It must be noted that there are some vacancies in the observations 
so that the results found cannot pretend to absolute accuracy. 

We see that there is considerable similarity between. these curves 
for the Norwegian coast and the curves for Esbjerg in Denmark 
and Ijmuiden in Holland, but the agreement with the curves of the 
Baltic Sea is much less perfect, and the same must be said of the 
agreement with the curve for the temperature difference in the 
Atlantic Ocean as shown in figure 43, curve II. However, we find 
in all the curves the same^ considerable maximum in 1903 and 
depressions in the years 1902 and 1908. On the other hand, the 
curve for Narvik shows a maximum in the year 1907, which we 
have not found in the other curves, whereas the Dutch curves 
and that for Esbjerg in 1906 show a maximum at a time when 
the Narvik curve shows a high water-mark. It must be regarded as 
important that one finds on the whole such similarity in the varia- 
tions of the height of the water in regions so far removed from 
one another. 

The rule which we have derived from what has been said is this : 
If the temperature in February in the east fields of the Atlantic 
Ocean compared with the middle fields (of 30° to 39° west longi- 
tude) is uncommonly high, then the level of the water on the whole 
for the entire year in the North Sea and especially in the Baltic 
Sea will be uncommonly high. So also will be the temperature 
of the air in February and in general for the year in Hamburg. 

We have spoken here of the difference in the temperatures of 
the different fields of the Atlantic Ocean. One cannot draw the 
conclusion from the absolute temperatures in one of the fields be- 
cause an anomaly may exist over the whole ocean, as in the year 
1904. If we examine, however, the curves for Liepe's temperature 
anomaly station No. i (see fig. 43, III), which is a statio'n lying 
further eastward than our fields and immediately at the mouth of 
the English Channel near Ouessant, we find there better agreement 
between the temperature variations and the height of the water m 
the East sea (see fig. 43, V and VI). The rule that a high sur- 
face temperature at Liepe's Station i, as well as a high air tem- 
perature in the northwest coast of middle Europe at Hamburg 
in February, in general corresponds to a high level of the water in 
the Baltic Sea during the year shows few exceptions. The expla- 
nation is not difficult, and we shall later return to it more at length 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 87 

in chapter VII. Here we shall only say that a high temperature 
at the mouth of the Channel points to a current in the water toward 
the north or northeast, which may be set up by such a state of the 
air pressure distribution as may cause lOw surface temperatures in 
the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. There occurs therefore a dif- 
ference between these middle and the most easterly regions (see 
curves fig. 43). This difference is correlated with the masses of 
water in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Accordingly one may 
predict with the help of temperature observations in the Atlantic 
Ocean in February whether in that year the water level in the North 
and Baltic Seas will be on the whole higher or lower than common. 
This leads to further consequences for the Baltic Sea where evi- 
dently the rise or fall of the water within the basin plays a con- 
siderable role in the entire circulation as well as in all that relates 
to it. 

VARIATIONS IN THE AIR TEMPERATURE OVER THE ATLANTIC OCEAN 

On account of the difficulties attending accurate measurements of 
the temperature of the air, we must expect that the air temperatures 
amongst our observational material will contain many inaccuracies 
and accidental errors. On this account, it must be supposed that 
our temperature values for the air will not correspond very ac- 
curately with the real conditions. Nevertheless, it appears that our 
mean values even for the 2° fields go very well. We have not drawn 
any curves for the air temperature for the single fields, but only 
the curves for the difference between the surface temperatures and 
the air temperatures in each 2° field, as shown in figures 44 to 46. 
If the air temperatures were altogether untrustworthy these curves 
would not show good agreement one with another. We find, how- 
ever, a very good similarity between them, and we see that they, 
like the curves for the surface temperature, show a gradual transi- 
tion the further we go from the most easterly fields toward the west. 
But westward of 44° to 46° west longitude they, like the surface 
temperatures, begin to show greater irregularities and less correspon- 
dence and this was indeed to be expected. Since these curves 
show such a great agreement each to each, at least in the eastern 
part of the ocean, it is clear that we may infer that our values for 
the air temperature in the different fields correspond very well 
with the truth, and this conclusion will be even more justified for 
the mean values of our 10° fields (see pis. 42 to 45, curves L).' 



OO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

The average values for the great regions (see curves W and L 
in fig. 48) show the variations of the air temperatures and the sur- 
face temperatures in good agreement, although the variations of the 
air temperatures are considerably greater that those of the ocean 
surface. This is particularly the case in February in the middle 
region of the ocean as shown distinctly in figure 49. In plates 42 
to 45, we have given the curves for the temperature of the air (L) 
and of the water (W) for the separate 10° longitude fields. We 
find there particularly in February the same tendency to considerably 
greater variations (with maxima and minima more strongly de- 
veloped) in the air temperature than in the surface temperature, 
yet there are many exceptions in the two most easterly as well as in 
the two most westerly fields. 

There are, however, certain marked disagreements between the 
curves for the air temperature and the curves for the surface tem- 
perature of the ocean. This can be observed in the February curve 
for the air temperature in the middle of our fields along the route 
Channel-New York (see fig. 48) and also in the mean values for the 
middle fields of figure 49, which show a secondary minimum in the 
year 1907 which finds no place in the curves for the surface tempera- 
tures. In some of the curves for the fields in the region Portugal to 
the Azores we also find a tendency to a similar seco'ndary minimum 
in the curves of air temperatures (see fig. 52) . Since it appears in so 
many curves for different fields, particularly for the 10° fields 30° 
to 50° west longitude in the route Channel-New York, we cannot 
think that this depression is merely accidental, but rather that it 
probably corresponds with a real condition. 

The March-April curve for the air temperature for the average 
of the fields on the route Channel to New York (see fig. 48), or 
for the four middle 10° longitude fields (fig. 49) show a remarkable 
rise of temperature for 1904 in relation to 1903 and 1905. There 
is nothing corresponding to this in the surface temperatures. Since 
this noteworthy rise of air temperature in the year 1904 is appearing 
in all the curves for the air temperature in the 10° fields between 
20° and 60° west longitude and most strongly so in the midmost 
of these fields, that is, the field between 40° and 50° west longitude 
(see pi. 42), we have to do in this case certainly with the real rela- 
tion of things and not with mere accidental errors in the observa- 
tions. There are still other traces of disagreement between the air 
temperature and the surface temperature, of which we shall speak 
later. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 89 

1 8«) n woo 1 ^ 3 ■> 5 6 7 



It ps 99 1900 IZ3'>5b7S9y 



lU-Il'W. 




Figure 44. 



Figure 45. 



Figures 44 and 45. Anomalies of surface temperature minus air tempera- 
ture for 2° fields along the route Channel to New York. 



90 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



POSSIBLE CAUSES OF THE VARIATION IN TEMPERATURE IN THE 
SURFACE OF THE SEA AND OF THE AIR 

To what causes shall we attribute these remarkable and in part 
very great variations in the temperatures of the ocean surface and 



J898 -99 1900 .1 Z :5 •f 5 6 7 S 3 10 




6S-69^ 



Figure 46. Continuation of figure 45. 

of the air in different parts of the ocean? We may consider a 
whole series of possibilities which suggest themselves. 

Such temperature variations can be brought about by variations 
of the temperature of the water masses themselves which are trans- 
ported by the Gulf Stream and other ocean currents. In this case 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 9I 

we should expect a progressive march of the variations from place 
to place accompanying the transportation of the ocean water- masses. 

Variations in the temperature of the oeean surface and the air 
may also be brought about by variations in the strength or direction 
of the winds. This may work in different ways : In part by the 
winds transporting warmer or cooler air-masses and tending to 
warm particular regions of the ocean surface or to cool them. They 
may act also to produce waves upon the ocean by means of which 
the upper ocean layers are disturbed and the deeper lying water is 
brought up to the surface, and thereby the surface is generally made 
colder. Finally the winds may act by lateral displacement of the 
surface layers, whereby a field of observation may receive warmer 
or colder layers of water brought in from elsewhere. 

It may also be thought that variations in the temperature of the 
ocean surface and of the atmosphere may be attributed to the varia- 
ations in the intensity of the solar radiation at the earth's surface. 
Such variations could for example be brought about by greater or 
less cloudiness. Cloudiness acts in general in summer to diminish the 
temperature and in winter to increase it on account of its influence 
on the solar radiation and the outgoing radiation of the earth. But 
a cause of variation in the solar radiation may occur higher in the 
atmosphere and depend upon varying quantities of volcanic dust 
thrown high up by great volcanic eruptions and remaining suspended 
in the higher la)^ers of the air for long periods of time. 

The temperature variations could be brought about also by varia- 
tions in the outgoing radiation of the earth on account of absorption 
conditions changed by the influence of carbon dioxide, ozone, or 
other vapors. 

But the temperature variations may also have cosmic causes 
depending for example on periodic or non-periodic variations in the 
radiation of the sun, outside the atmosphere. Such solar changes 
might produce directly variations in the temperatures measured in 
the ocean or in the air near the earth's surface or they may act in- 
directly by calling forth changes in the atmosphere of the earth, such 
for example as alterations in the thermal relations of the higher air 
layers or in the atmospheric electric potential or in the terrestrial 
magnetism or in the earth currents. These changes in the atmos- 
phere could again act in different ways to produce changes in the 
distribution of air pressure, the formation of clouds and the distri- 
bution of temperature on the earth's surface. 



92 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 

VI. VARIATIONS IN INDIVIDUAL FIELDS IN CONSEQUENCE OF 
THE WATER TRANSFERENCE THROUGH THE REGIONS 

Among the possible causes of the variations in the temperatures of 
the ocean we will first investigate how far it is likely that the ob- 
served variations in the surface temperature of the different fields 
depend upon changes in the quantity of heat available in the water. 
We may suppose that these changes depend in part upon direct 
variations in the velocity and volume of the Gulf Stream (off Florida 
Stream) and the Antilles current which also alter the temperature 
of it and partly indirectly upon variations of the velocity and vol- 
ume of the cold Labrador current which may influence its tempera- 
ture and thereby the temperature of the Gulf Stream, since these 
cold water-masses must mix therewith. 

THE LOW SURFACE TEMPERATURES IN THE YEARS I9O3 AND I904 

In order to approach this difficult question it appears simplest to 
follow the great features of the variations and for this purpose the 
most striking one to consider first is the great minimum of the year 
1904. As already said this minimum shows least in the most easterly 
fields and increases strongly towards the west. This increase can 
most probably depend upon the fact that the isotherms in the western 
region are closer together. One might think that it would thereby 
occur that in the west they should be nearer the middle action point 
from which the depression goes out. This supposition is apparently 
strengthened by the fact that the minimum towards 40° west longi- 
tude and from there to 50° west longitude and more is found not 
only in 1904 but partially in 1903 also. This is observed in our 
February curves but is more marked in the March- April curves (see 
figs. 16 to 18). 

Since the " cold wedge " projects in the region 48° to 50° west 
longitude from the Labrador current towards the south into the 
water-masses of the Gulf Stream (see figs. 5 and 6) the conclusion 
may apparently be drawn that the region between 40° and 50° west 
longitude is the action center for our minimum. Here perhaps it 
was first generated in this way that the Labrador Stream in Febru- 
ary, 1903, and yet more in March, 1903, transported uncommonly 
cold water southward and the water-masses at the Gulf Stream were 
thereby cooled. From here the cold water was gradually diffused 
toward the east over the ocean in the course of the year 1903 and, 
since the addition of cold water from the Labrador Stream in- 
creased, it produced a powerful influence over the whole Atlantic 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 93 

Ocean by February, 1904. The circumstance that the minimum 
gradually extended also toward the west of 50° west longitude along 
the water-masses of the Gulf Stream may perhaps be explained by 
the consideration that the cold water of the Labrador Stream was 
gradually diffused with the coast current along the south coast of 
Newfoundland as well as along the southwest coast of Nova Scotia 
in the year 1903 and yet inore in the year 1904. This cold water 
became gradually mixed with the water-masses of the Gulf Stream 
further to the west in the open sea. 

We may now inquire whether there is evidence that the Labrador 
current actually transported uncommonly great quantities of cold 
water in the year 1903. We find, as already mentioned, that exactly 
in this year an uncommonly great quantity of ice appeared along the 
Newfoundland banks, which indicates an abnormal development of 
the Labrador Stream, as Schott has pointed out. 

This tends strongly to confirm the correctness of the above given 
explanation and Schott came also to the conclusion that the water- 
masses of the Gulf Stream in the year 1903 were uncommonly 
strongly cooled by the increased activity of the Labrador current, 
so that this gradually cooled the whole Atlantic Ocean eastward 
clear to the coast of Europe in the course of the year. 

As above pointed out, however, we cannot agree with Schott that 
the increase of the Labrador current was called forth by a great 
intensification of the velocity of the Gulf Stream beginning with 
the year 1903 as he has assumed. Our temperatures of the ocean 
surface in February do not give the slightest indication of an inten- 
sification of the Gulf Stream unless in the most western 10° fields 
between 60° and 70° west longitude on the coast of America (see 
fig. 20) . In the fields further eastward, in the region of the Labrador 
current, the surface temperature in February, 1903, was uncommonly 
low. In this region there was an absolute minimum in the spring 
of the year just named, in February and yet more in March-April 
especially in the field between 50° and 60° west longitude (see fig. 
20 and pis. 26 and 27). 

In relation to the tendency of the Labrador current to cool the 
water-masses of the Gulf Stream, one must, like Meinardus (1904), 
take into account that the greatest part of the water-masses of the 
Labrador current, in consequence of its low temperature and in 
spite of its small salt contents, is heavier than the water-masses of 
the Gulf Stream. On this account it tends to sink underneath the 
Gulf Stream and thereby has a strong tendency to cool the latter 



94 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

on its underneath layers. But in spite of this it is probable that 
by the process of mixing the higher layers are in a certain degree 
cooled also. One must, however, keep in mind that the Labrador 
current is a surface stream, whose depth is not great, and the volume 
of the water-mass which it transports is relatively small. Care must 
therefore be taken not to overload this relatively small current with 
the work of cooling the whole Atlantic Ocean, as is so often done. 
It is something quite different, however, to consider that the water 
of the whole Atlantic Ocean in the north is cooler than it is farther 
south and that a depression of the temperature within a region must 
occur when this colder northern water-mass is brought down by one 
or another cause toward the south. 

It is clear that the masses of ice carried along by the Labrador 
current such as drift ice and icebergs which are driven far toward 
the south, must particularly by their melting tend to cool the sur- 
face layers of the ocean. But meanwhile it must not be forgotten 
that the quantities of heat required to melt these ice-masses are 
vanishingly small compared with the quantities of heat which are 
transported by the water-masses of the Atlantic Ocean currents. 

If we examine our material closely in order to see what light it 
throws upon such a water transportation of heat as we have been 
speaking of, we may draw the conclusion from the curves of our 
io° fields given in figure 20 that the water in February between 50° 
and 60° west longitude was uncommonly cold and also in the more 
eastern fields between 50° and 30° west longitude. So far to the 
east as between 20° and 30° west longitude the surface tempera- 
ture was in February below the normal (see pi. 26). On the other 
hand in the most easterly region, between 10° and 20° west longi- 
tude, the cooling did not appear to be noticeable. In our last decade 
group, March-April, in 1903, the surface temperature was further 
cooled in the fields between 50° and 60° west longitude and this 
gradual cooling from February to March- April made itself felt in 
all the fields eastward as shown in figure 20 and plate 27. If we 
may judge by our curves it continued through the whole year, so 
that the surface temperatures in February, 1904, were considerably 
cooler than in March-April, 1903, in all of our 10° longitude fields 
between 50° and 10° west longitude, but not in the field between 50° 
and 60° west longitude, as shown in figure 20. In March-April, 
1904, the surface temperature began to rise, but particularly in the 
field between 40° and 50° west longitude, and this rise made itself 
felt in all the fields eastward thereof. Hence we may assume that 
at this time the coldest part of the minimum had been passed. 



NO, 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 95 

If we consider now the distribution of anomalies in the single 
decades from decade to decade, as shown in our isopleth diagram 
of plate 27, we may possibly see indications that in the ocean east- 
ward of 50° west longitude a certain displacement toward the east 
in the greater and smaller anomalies takes place from decade to 
decade, but this displacement is not marked and is very irregular, 
which last is no doubt partially due to the inaccuracy of the material. 

RELATION BETWEEN SURFACE TEMPERATURE AND AIR TEMPERATURE 

The question whether the variations which we are investigating 
depend upon changes of the temperature of the masses of water 
brought on by the ocean currents or whether they depend upon 
other causes must be settled by the relation between the tempera- 
ture of the air and the temperature of the ocean surface. Since 
we have seen the march of the variations in the temperature of the 
air and o'f the ocean surface, at least on the whole, go in the same 
direction, we must expect that if the variations in the temperature 
of the ocean surface are the primary cause this would precede the 
variations in the temperature of the air and call them forth. 

Since the temperature of the air is on the whole lower than that 
of the ocean surface, it follows that the addition of colder water- 
masses by ocean currents tend to bring the temperature of the ocean 
surface more nearly towards that of the temperature of the air, so 
that the difference between these would be less than the normal. 
If the temperature of the ocean surface in consequence of the trans- 
portation of warmer masses of water is raised by the ocean cur- 
rent, the temperature of the surface will depart from that of the 
air and the difference between them will become greater than nor- 
mal. This is, however, not always the case as one may see by 
our figures (pis. 42 to 45, curves W and L, and W-L, also figs. 48 
to 52). We shall now examine how the special minimum of the 
years 1903 and 1904 goes with respect to this view. 

In the field 50° to 55° west longitude the dift'erence, surface 
temperature minus air temperature, in February, 1903, was nearly 
normal, as shown in plate 42. In March-April, 1903, the difference 
is considerably smaller than normal (see pi. 42). In February, 
1904, the difference is a little greater than normal, but in March- 
April, 1904, it is considerably less than normal. Thus it seems to 
appear on the whole as if the possibility that the variations in the 
temperature depend upon variations of the quantity of heat brought 
bv the water-masses is not shut out. 



96 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

In field 40° to 49° west longitude, plate 42, the temperature of 
the air in February, 1903, was more than double as much below the 
normal as the surface of the ocean was under its normal value for 
this month. In March-April, 1903, the air temperature was some- 
what farther below the normal than the surface temperature. In 
February, 1904, the difference between the surface temperature and 
the air temperature was not as great as in February, 1903, but 
greater than it was in March- April, 1903. In all three months, it was 
greater than normal. In March- April, 1904, on the other hand, 
the difference between surface temperature and air temperature 
was less than normal. In this field therefore we cannot say that the 
relations point to the view that the temperature variations were 
primarily caused by changes in the temperature of the water-masses 
brought in by ocean currents. 

In field 30° to 39° west longitude (pi. 42) the difference between 
the surface temperature and the air temperature in February, 1903, 
was normal, in March-April, 1903, it was greater than normal, and 
in February, 1904, it was considerably greater than normal. On 
the other hand in March- April, 1904, it was less than normal. 

In field 20° to 29° west longitude (pi. 43) in February, 1903, the 
difference between the surface temperature and the air temperature 
was less than normal, in March- April, 1903, somewhat greater than 
normal, and February, 1904, considerably greater than normal, and 
in March-April somewhat less than normal. We have here there- 
fore the same run as in the 10° longitude field 30° to 39° west 
longitude and that appears scarcely to favor the view that changes 
in the temperature depend primarily on the variations of tempera- 
ture of the water-masses in the ocean current. 

In field 10° to 19° west longitude (pi. 43) in February, 1903, the 
difference between surface temperature and air temperature was 
considerably less than normal, but here there was a secondary maxi- 
mum in the surface temperature. In March-April, 1903, the dif- 
ference between the surface temperature and the air temperature 
was greater than normal, February, 1904, it was greater, and in 
March-April somewhat less than normal. Of this field we can 
therefore say that the February curves indicate that the variations 
in the surface temperature and the air temperature were not pri- 
marily due to temperature changes of the masses of water brought 
on by the ocean currents. 

If we consider now the relation between surface temperature and 
air temperature in all the fields which we have investigated taken 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN TITE NORTH ATLANTIC 9/ 

together as a whole, as shown in figures 48 and 49, we conclude 
that there is scarcely any indication that shows definitely that the 
variations in the surface temperature are first in point of time, and 
depend on changes of temperature in water-masses brought on by 
the ocean current. One, however, obtains the impression that the 
variations in the air temperature go before the variations in the 
surface temperature of the water; because, as we have said, in most 
cases these are greater in the magnitude both of the positive 
anomalies and the negative anomalies than the variations of the 
surface temperatures. A clearer impression of this relation is ob- 
tained perhaps by the study of the curves in the southern fields, 
particularly 41° to 45° north latitude in plates 44 and 45 and 
in figures 50 to 52. 

On the whole we have not obtained in this way a final answer to 
the question whether the marked minimum in the years 1903 and 
1904 depends upon the transportation of cold water or not. 

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE DECADES AS SHOWN IN 
OUR ISOPLETH DIAGRAMS 

Considering the variations in the other years, we must first investi- 
gate whether our isopleth diagrams for the decades (see pis. 17, 
19 to 41) give indications that these variations are brought about 
by the transportation of cold or warm water-masses. We must, 
however, recognize that only variations with short periods could 
produce true displacements in so few decades (only seven) as are 
included in our diagram. Variations with longer periods would 
evidently produce effects diffused over all seven of the decades and 
only at the beginning or the ends of such variations would it be 
expected that displacements would appear in our isopleth diagrams. 
There is still another consideration of perhaps even greater weight 
which must be kept in mind. If the variations are brought about by 
the transportation of cold or warm water-masses they should be 
indicated on our isopleth diagrams by a gradual displacement from 
the left toward the right, that is, from the west toward the east, from 
decade to decade, and this would imply that the current moved in 
an easterly direction along the course of our region of investiga- 
tion. If it crossed this course at right angles or diagonally thereto 
there would be no clear displacement in the diagrams. But in fact, 
as already mentioned, we must assume that the current cuts at least 
in several places our route from the Channel tp New York and does 
not go along with it. The isopleth diagrams therefore cannot show 



98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

on the whole a well marked tendency to the displacement of the 
anomalies from decade to decade. In single years, as for example 
in the year 1910, there came in the second and third decade a nega- 
tive anomaly which spread out over a greater part of the investi- 
gated region and then suddenly ceased. In the fifth decade, more- 
over, there appeared a well-marked positive anomaly in the same 
region. Such a variation can scarcely be brought about by the trans- 
portation of cold water unless it should be a wandering minimum of 
very short period, and it must therefore probably depend upon 
other influences which rule only in the second and third decade. 
In the year 1905, for example, there was from the first to the third 
decade a well-marked positive anomaly over a greater part of the 
region which, however, ceased in the fourth and fifth decades, when 
negative anomalies occurred over nearly the whole region. Here 
also it cannot have been a transportation of warm water in the 
first decades which ceased immediately after, for in this case this 
warm water must in all events have appeared in the later decades 
also. Of course it might have been that the current was more or 
less at right angles to the investigated region and the period o'f time 
that the water was passing was so short that all the warm water 
passed by between the third and fifth decade. But such an assump- 
tion is not very probable. 

POSSIBLE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TRANSFERENCE OF WATER-MASSES 

BY OCEAN CURRENTS WITH RESPECT TO TEMPERATURE 

VARIATIONS 

A possible indication of the fact that some of the variations may 
really depend upon the transference of water-masses of dififerent 
temperature is found by comparison of the different temperature 
curves for the different 10° longitude fields in the southwest cor- 
ner of the Portugal-Azores region and northeasterly toward the 
most easterly field of the route Channel to New York. In figure 
47 are superposed, first, the mean of the temperature curves for 
the two most southwesterly 10° longitude fields in the Portugal- 
Azores region, that is to say, the fields between 37° and 39° north 
latitude and between 20° and 40° west longitude ; second, in the 
same way the mean of the temperature curves for the two more 
northerly lying 10° longitude fields between 39° and 41° north lati- 
tude and between 20° and 40° west" longitude. Besides these are 
also collected the temperature curves for each of the two most 
northerly fields of the Portugal-Azores region between 20° and 30° 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



99 



west longitude and finally also for the most easterly fields between 
io° and 20° west longitude of the route Channel to New York. 
As is easily seen there is a gradual development in these curves 
from SSW. towards NNE., while the curves on both sides of 
this course as well toward the northwest as toward the southeast 
have a quite different nature. The conclusion seems therefore 
natural that from the southwest corner of the Portugal-Azores 
region water-masses of different temperature were transported in 
the direction of NNE. and it is in consequence of this transporta- 
tion that an uninterrupted relationship exists between these fields. 

1S99 99 1900 12. J A 56789 10 







Figure 47. Curves for the anomalies of the surface temperature in Feb- 
ruary in the fields indicated on the right. 



It also points in the same direction that, as earlier remarked, the 
current is often more at right angles to our observational region 
than along it and the transportation in a west to east direction 
within our fields is therefore relatively small and less noticeable in 
our observational series and isopleth diagrams. 

According to these results it appears that the islands or bands 
which are found in the decade isopleths (see, for example, 1910, pi. 
41) perhaps are produced by wandering minima or maxima, but 
more probably depend upon particular wind relations or other local 
circumstances which one must study on the decade charts of air pres- 
sure and wind distribution. 



lOO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

DISPROOF OF THE ASSUMPTION THAT THE OBSERVED TEMPERATURE 

VARIATIONS ARE DUE PRINCIPALLY TO VARIATIONS 

IN THE OCEAN CURRENTS 

Counter to the assumption that the variations in the surface tem- 
perature of the North Atlantic Ocean depend mainly on the trans- 
portation of colder or warmer M^ater-masses along with the Gulf 
Stream drift, tends the fact already mentioned, namely, if the sur- 
face temperature in February in the middle of the North Atlantic 
Ocean (30° to 39° west longitude) in comparison to that of the 
most easterly part (10° to 19° west longitude) is low, then the sur- 
face temperature on the coast of Europe near the Channel is high 
as well as the air temperature over the northwest coast of Europe 
at Hamburg and the yearly mean height of the water in the North 
Sea and in the Baltic Sea. If, however, the surface temperature 
in the middle part of the North Atlantic Ocean is high in rela- 
tion to that of the eastern part, all this is reversed. Obviously 
another cause must produce this result and we shall return to this 
later. 

Opposed to the assumption that the minimum in the years 1903 
and 1904 depended only on the transportation of cold water with 
the Gulf Stream is the circumstance that this minimum, particularly 
in the year 1904, extended over so great a part of the earth. In 
thQ' first place we find it not only over the whole of the region 
of the Atlantic Ocean investigated by us, but also yet further 
south near the equator, as shown in the Dutch fields (pi. 15, fields 
19 to 20) where there was a minimum which agreed completely 
with ours and which also occurred in the yearly temperature (see 
fig. 39 and pi. 28) . In the western Danish fields north of 50° north 
latitude, shown in figure 33, and also on the equator between 0° 
and 1° north latitude and 29° to 32° west longitude, as we shall 
see later, we find the same minimum in the yearly temperature 
(see fig. 60, ;curve IXb). In the Indian Ocean also there appeared 
a minimum in the year 1904, as is shown by the Dutch records for 
the 10° squares (see fig. 62, curve VIII). 

Not only in the ocean was there a minimum in February, March- 
April, and the whole year 1904, but also in the atmosphere there 
was a minimum over a great region of the earth, particularly 
marked in the tropics, and further appearing in the average tempera- 
ture fo'r the year on the whole earth (see fig. 60) of which we 
shall speak later. We must therefore believe that there was a more 
general cause at work, for it is not possible that a mere local trans- 
portation of relatively cooled water into the Atlantic Ocean could 
have produced such general effects. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC lOI 

VII. RELATION BETWEEN THE TEMPERATURE AND THE AIR 

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER THE NORTH 

ATLANTIC OCEAN 

If one seeks to determine the influence of the winds on the sur- 
face temperature of the ocean he must examine the condition of 
the surface layers in the different seasons of the year. In northerly 
latitudes where the evaporation is less than the precipitation the 
salt content is increased in winter in consequence of the mixture 
of the underlying layers by a vertical circulation, while in the sum- 
mer the salt content diminishes in consequence of the precipitation 
which being- warm would remain on the surface and thereby a 
lighter layer is formed. Besides this the upper surface water in 
a large part of the ocean is diluted by the coast water and also 
by the polar water. These surface layers spread about over much 
greater areas in summer than in winter, because their specific 
gravity is considerably smaller partly by the increased dilution 
and partly by warming. If, however, the evaporation is greater 
than the precipitation, the yearly march is reversed and the highest 
salt contents at the ocean surface is found in summer and the low- 
est in winter. 

ACTION OF WINDS ON SURFACE TEMPERATURES 

How does the action of the winds on the surface temperature 
adapt itself in different cases? 

As a general rule we must expect that if the wind in the field 
blows from regions of the sea where the surface is warmer, then 
the surface temperature in the field in question will tend to rise 
because warmer waters will be brought by the winds. But if the 
winds come from a region of colder ocean surface, the reverse 
will happen. In particular cases, however, there are many devia- 
tions from this rule. 

If the sea is covered with a thin. top surface which is warmer 
than the water lying below, then a strong wind, by stirring the 
water in the upper layers may produce a lowering of surface tem- 
perature even though this wind comes from the warmer regions of 
the sea. If the ocean has a fresh-water surface, which by reason 
of its small salt content is lighter than the water lying below, and 
this layer by the outward radiation in winter becomes colder than 
the underlying layers, then a strong wind by stirring up the water 
may cause a rise of the surface temperatures, even if it comes from 
colder regions of the ocean. 



I02 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

If at one place a strong" wind occurs and thereby stronger surface 
currents are produced without a corresponding increase in the cur- 
rents in the region behind, then an increased transportation of the 
surface water must be in part made up by water taken from the 
underlying layers. If this is colder, then the surface temperature 
must sink thereby, even if the wind itself comes from warmer 
layers of the ocean. This in many cases occurs suddenly by reason 
of local winds, without continuing long enough to appear in the 
monthly means. 

The above mentioned exceptions to the general rule concerning 
the action of the wind on the surface temperature of the ocean are 
those which must be expected to make themselves least felt in the 
North Atlantic Ocean in the months of the year which are included in 
our investigations. The surface of the ocean is then most cooled and 
the convection streams are in the greatest degree of homogeneity 
in a vertical direction. 

When the sun begins to warm the ocean surface in the spring, 
it would be otherwise and it may then be understood, how, as we 
shall later describe, the best agreement between the wind relations 
and the variations of the surface temperature is found in February. 

COMPUTATION OF AIR PRESSURE GRADIENTS AND WIND DIRECTION 

The process employed by Meinardus of determining the air pres- 
sure difference between some few chosen places does not serve to 
exhibit clearly the influence of the air pressure distribution and the 
winds which arise from it on the observed variations in the surface 
.temperature of the ocean. To be sure, one obtains in this way a 
kind of sample of the variations in the strength of the atmospheric 
circulation, but the process does not give us the variations in the 
direction of the circulation in the different regions, and this is 
exactly what it is necessary to know. 

We have found that an investigation of the air pressure distribu- 
tion (and the wind relations depending thereon) may be obtained 
most conveniently for our purpose with the help of the monthly 
charts of the air pressure distribution of the Atlantic Ocean, which 
are based on the daily synoptic weather charts published by the Dan- 
ish Meteorological Institute and the Deutschen Seewarte. Publica- 
tions of this kind are available for the years 1898 to 1908. Before 
the printing of this memoir we obtained, through the kind assistance 
of Mr. Ryders, Director of the Danish Meteorological Institute, 
proof-sheets of the isobar charts for January, February, and March, 
1909 and 1910. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE \ARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC IO3 

For each of our io° longitude fields in the course Channel to 
New York and for each field of io° longitude and 2° latitude in 
the region Portugal to the Azores, for the months January and 
February of each year, and in the region Channel to New York, 
also for the month of March, we obtained the mean direction of 
the isobars (in the direction of the wind, according to the barometric 
law of the wind). We have also fotmd values for the aver- 
age intensity of the air pressure gradients, which we obtained 
by measuring the distance between the isobars and taking the 
reciprocals of these values. As a unit, we have taken the thousandth 
of the reciprocal value of the distance between the two-millimeter 
interval isobars, measuring this distance on the charts to millimeters. 
If, for example, the distance between two such isobars was 6 milli- 
meters, then the gradient numbers according to our figures would 
be 1000-^6=167. As a rule we have taken mean of the distances 
between several isobars. By making progressive vector diagrams 
for each month in which the direction of the vectors of that month 
for each year are drawn according to the isobar angle, and the 
lengths are given by the relative gradient numbers just described, we 
have obtained average isobar directions for each of the months 
January, February and March in each of the 10° longitude fields for 
the eleven periods 1898 to 1908.^ This period is unfortunately not 
identical with the eleven-year period 1900 to 1910, which we have 
employed in the determination of the temperature normals. 

Next we have determined the anomalies of the isobar direction 
for the different months and years as deviations from the average 
direction for these months. Deviations toward the south, that is 
to say, when the isobars are directed southerly of their normal posi- 
tions, we have designated as negative, and deviations toward the 
north as positive. The product of the gradient number and the 
sine of this anomaly angle is then used as a measure of the possible 
influence of the wind on the surface temperature. In doing so, we 
consider that the normal position of the surface isotherm is de- 
pendent on the average direction of the isobar and that a deviation 
from this must produce lateral displacements of the isotherms. The 
sine of the deviation angle would be equal to the component of the 
air motion at right angles to the average direction. 

This process obviously cannot pretend to any great degree of 
accuracy. For example, it is not easy to know in advance which is 



^Unfortunately we received the isobar charts for 1909 and 1910 too late to 
carry through this computation. 



I04 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

more important for the surface temperatures, the direction of the 
wind or its strength. Furthermore the influence on the surface 
temperature is certainly not simply proportional to the strength of 
the wind and still less is it proportional to the sine of the angle, 
positive or negative, which the wind makes with the direction of 
the normal wind.^ But in spite of this inaccuracy the process gives 
the means of determining the influence of the wind on the variations 
of the surface temperature qualitatively and to a certain degree 
quantitatively at least in the colder part of the year, with which we 
have here to do. 

ANGLE BETWEEN THE DIRECTIONS OF THE ISOBARS AND 
THE ISOTHERMS 

The average isobar directions for January, February, and March 
for the eleven-year period 1898 to 1908 are given in tables 12D and 
1 3D, and for January and February they are also given on the 
chart, figure 7 (see also pi. i, and for March, pi. 7). The relation 
between these isobar directions and the directions of the isotherms 
is of interest. In most of our 10° longitude fields the isotherms 
cut the average direction of the isobars in a pretty constant angle 
(see chart fig. 7). An exception appears in the four eastern fields 
near the Spanish Peninsula, as well as in the most westerly field 
near the American coast. The same holds for the two fields south 
of Newfoundland Bank where the current direction is strongly 
influenced by the ocean bottom. Also in the four fields for the 
Danish observations north of 50° north latitude, the isotherms do 



^ Several considerations may be mentioned which have an influence but which 
the method takes no notice of. For example, if the isobars in a field during a 
month have a normal direction, then the deviation angle is equal to o" and the 
product of the sine with reciprocal value of the air pressure gradient will 
also be equal to o, however great the latter value may be. Now it is possible 
that the increased strength of a wind of a favorable direction tends to raise 
the surface temperature in a field with warm ocean currents on the surface. 
Thus the increase of the strength of the wind even if it blows in the normal 
direction may produce an increase of the surface temperature because it in- 
creases the velocity of a warm current. Indeed it is possible that a wind which 
is uncommonly strong may raise the temperature even if it comes from a 
direction which would have a negative sine value to the normal direction. 
We can make no consideration of these conditions in our process. On the 
other hand, it is not certain that an increase in the strength of the warm wind, 
that is to say, one whose direction is on the positive side of the normal direc- 
tion, would always have the tendency to raise the surface temperature of the 
ocean. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC IO5 

not cut the isobars at a constant angle (see fig. 7). But in all our 
fields in the open ocean south of 50° north latitude between 20° and 
40° west longitude and furthermore in the fields between 10° and 
20° west longitude in the route Channel to New York, the angle 
made by the average isobar directions for February with the iso- 
therms for February varies only between 29° and 47° and is in the 
mean 39°. 

According to theoretical computations, in consequence of the rota- 
tion of the earth the direction of the currents which the wind 
causes should be inclined at the angle of 45° to the wind direc- 
tion. The agreement between our angle and this angle seems extra- 
ordinarily good, since they differ by only 6°. The isotherms to 
be sure do not follow exactly the same direction as the surface 
current, for the latter has a more northerly direction. On the other 
hand, the wind does no't move exactly in -the isobar directions, but 
somewhat to the left of this as is shown in chart, figure 8. 

We must keep in mind that it is not alone the wind relations of 
February which have influence upon the temperature distribution 
at the surface of the ocean in February, but probably also the wind 
relations in the previous time. It seems therefore more justifiable, 
theoretically at least, to take the mean value, for example, of the 
isobar directions in January and February to compare with the 
February isotherms, and we have done this in the chart, figure 7, 
and in plate i. With this modification we find that the angle between 
the isobar directions and the isotherms is on the whole very nearly 
the same as found above. In most of the stretch of free ocean sur- 
face it comes to about 40°. It varies between 21° and 53°. The 
mean is 37° instead of 39° as given above. 

In the most easterly part of the Atlantic Ocean near the Spanish 
Peninsula, obviously the ocean currents set up by the wind are 
influenced by the coast and the coastal topography. The average 
isobar directions make another angle with the isotherms. Also in 
the neighborhood of the American coast the isotherms are strongly 
influenced by the Gulf Stream and the ocean bottom conditions, so 
that one should not expect here so good an agreement between the 
directions of the isobars and those of the surface isotherms, for 
here the wind has less influence on the current. We find here, 
accordingly, quite another angle between the isobar and the isotherm 
directions. This is also partially the case in the fields south of the 
Newfoundland Bank. However, it should not be overlooked that, 
as figure 8 shows, the wind in this region blows much to the left 
8 



Io6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

of the isobar directions. In the open ocean south of 50° north 
latitude, however, where one ought not to expect that outside 
influences should be so important, we find a definite relation between 
the directions of the average isobars and the average isotherms. 
This proves nothing with certainty concerning the general tendency 
of the winds to create ocean currents particularly as we see that 
in the open ocean north of 50° north latitude the relation does not 
hold, and in the ocean southwest of Ireland we "must assume that 
the surface current goes toward the left of the isobar directions 
and not towards the right (see the arrows in fig. 7). However, 
the peculiar relation pointed out between the isobar direction and 
the isotherm direction in the middle part of the North Atlantic Ocean 
points to the fact that the wind here bears a strong influence on 
the motion of the surface waters. We must in this case therefore 
expect that it has also a strong influence on the variations of the 
surface temperature in consequence of its tendency to displace the 
water-masses on the surface. 

COMPARISON OF THE VALUES OF THE AIR PRESSURE GRADIENT 
WITH THE TEMPERATURE ANOMALIES 

In tables 12 D and 13 D we give for the months of January and 
February in each year the values found for the deviations of the 
isobars from the normal direction in each of the 10° longitude 
fields. Also the reciprocals of the values of the intensity of the air 
pressure gradients as well as numbers obtained by multiplying these 
intensities by the sines of the angles of deviation of the isobars. 
These values are also given for the months of January and February 
for the resultant between the directions of the isooars for these 
months. For the northerly route, Channel to New York, the same 
values are given for the month of March. Since the values for 
the mean gradient effect for January and February are obtained by 
vector analysis from the resultant for the isobar directions of these 
months, the results obtained are not always equal to the mean of the 
values of the two months. 

On the chart for February and for March-April of the different 
years (see pis. 16 to 41) we give for each of our 10° longitude 
fields arrows whose direction and magnitude indicate the re- 
sultants for the isobar directions and the air pressure gradients.* 



^ it must be recalled that the charts for February show the following : 
"Air pressure. The arrows for the ocean fields (see pi. 15, i to 24, and pis. 
I to 7) give the results for January and February. The arrows for the other 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I07 

We give also the anomalies of the surface temperature in tenths of 
a degree (printed in whole numbers without rings). The bold- 
faced numbers show positive anomalies and the lighter face italic 
numbers negative. The numbers in rings give air temperature 
anomalies in tenths of degrees for these fields. The heavy rings 
indicate positive and the lighter ones negative anomalies. We have 
added the direction of the isobars and the strength of the air pres- 
sure gradients as well as the anomalies of the ocean surface tem- 
peratures for the 10° longitude fields for the Danish observations 
north of 50° north latitude, and also the results for Liepe's i° fields 
(his stations I to VII, pi. 15, for the years 1898 to 1903).* 

If the directions of .the isobars in the single years run on the side 
of the normal direction which tends to raise the temperature, the 
arrows are shown as heavy full-drawn lines. For isobar directions 
on the opposite side which tend to cool, the arrows (with the excep- 
tion of those in Liepe's fields III to VII and the Dutch fields 19 to 
20, pi. 15) are shown as heavy dotted' lines. There are also indi- 
cated on the charts by weak arrows the average direction and magni- 
tude of the resultants for the action of the air pressure gradients for 
the interval 1898 to 1908. 

We give also upon the charts gradient arrows and surface tem- 
perature anomalies for the two already mentioned Dutch 10° fields 
(pis. 15, 19 to 20) for the years 1900 to 1910, also for stations on 
the Norwegian coast, on the Faroe Islands, and in Iceland. Finally 
we have introduced the monthly anomalies of the air temperature 
for different stations in North America, West Indies, South Amer- 
ica, Greenland, Europe, and Africa. These numbers are inclosed 

fields (on the coasts, that is to say at Hamburg, Torungen, Stad, Ireland, 
Hebrides, Shetlands, Faroe Islands) on the other hand give results only for 
February. 

The temperature (both water and air) is always for February alone. 

The charts which are headed March give : 

Air pressure. The arrows give in all cases the air pressure gradients for 
the month of March. 

The temperature is given for our fields i to 6 (pi. 15) for the time interval 
March 15 to April 13, for the Danish fields 21 to 29 (pi. 15) from March 16 to 
April 15. For Liepe's fields I to VIII and the Dutch fields 19 to 20 (pi. 15) 
the temperature is given for the mean of March and April. All air tempera- 
tures outside of our fields i to 6 are for March, as are also the water tempera- 
tures at the coast stations 30 to 45 (pi. 15). 

^ It should be noticed that the 20 years normal values of the temperatures 
at Liepe's stations which are computed for the period of time, 1884 to 1903, 
are employed as the eleven-year normal values for our fields 1900 to 191IO. 



io8 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



in rings, heavy rings for positive and light for negative anomalies/ 
The pressure gradients are also given by arrows for stations of the 
British Isles and also for Hamburg. See further details in the 
explanation of the tables. 

In plates i6 to 41, we have drawn on the left hand pages at the 



99 1900 1 2 3 t 5 6 7 8 9 1910 




Figure 48. The curves give the mean values for all six 10° longitude fields 
aJong the route Channel to New York. B : the air pressure gradients for 
January-February, February-March, and for the mean value for the months 
January, February, and March indicated by a strong dotted line. W : the 
anomalies of the surface temperatures. L : the anomalies of the air tempera- 
tures. W-L : the anomalies of the difference : surface temperature minus 
air temperature. W, L, and W-L apply for February as indicated by weak 
full-drawn Hues, for March-April as indicated by weak dotted lines, and for 
the mean values of both decade groups, February and March-April, as indi- 
cated by strong lines. 

bottom curves for the year, which give the local variations of the 
air pressure gradients across the Atlantic Ocean (curve B). The 
January curves are given by weak dotted lines, the February curves 



^ The normal temperatures for all these stations, with the exception of 
Liepe's stations, are computed for the same interval of time, 1900 to 1910, as 
for our fields. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTPI ATLANTIC IO9 

by weak full drawn lines and the average result for both months 
by strong dotted lines. There are also given curves for the anomalies 
of surface temperature (curves W), for the anomalies for the air 
temperature (curves L) and finally the anomalies of the surface 
temperature minus the air temperature (curves W-L). The figures 
at the middle and right hand side relate to the route New York 
to the Channel. The figures on the left relate to that from New 
York to Portugal, although the three most westerly io° fields of 
the route New York to the Channel are included in these figures 
while the values for the three easterly fields are the mean values of 
all 10° longitude fields between Portugal and 40° west longitude. 
These are made up of all fields between 37° and 35° north latitude 
and between 10° and 20°, 20° and 30°, 30° and 40° west longitude. 
If we examine these charts for the different years closely and com- 
pare them with the curves of the figures, we see that on the whole 
there is a good correspondence between the anomalies of the sur- 
face temperature and the air pressure gradients. This comes dis- 
tinctly to view both in the charts and in the figures. Particularly 
good is the agreement in the years when the air pressure gradients 
were large, that is to say, when the air circulation was strong, as 
for example, in the years 1899 and 1903. The years 1898, 1906, 
1907 and 1908 may also be included in this remark. The agree- 
ment is less good in the years when the air pressure gradients are 
less and in consequence the wind was weaker. In this connection 
we may particularly mention the years 1900 and 1902 when the 
agreement was less satisfactory. 

THE WINDS ARE THE PRINCIPAL CAUSE OF TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS 

ON THE SURFACE AND IN THE AIR UPON 

THE NORTH ATLANTIC 

Already the charts and curves of these plates have sufficed to 
show that the wind in most years has a very strong influence on the 
temperature variations in the field we have investigated. We obtain 
perhaps the strongest impression that this must be the case if we 
examine the curves of plates 42 to 46 which give for each of our 
10° longitude fields and for the Danish fields the variations from 
year to year in the anomalies of the pressure gradients for the dif- 
ferent months (January to March), of the surface temperatures, of 
the air temperatures, and of the surface temperatures minus the air 
temperatures. These curves show us that the agreement is not 
particularly good in the most western and most eastern fields. On 



no 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 



the other hand, in the middle fields, in the open ocean, the agree- 
ment on the whole is extraordinarily good and without doubt shows 
that the wind has a decisive influence on the temperature variations 
of the water and the air. 

It is still more clearly seen that the relation between the variations 
in the direction and strength of the air pressure gradients and the 



9 1910 




Figure 49. These curves give the same kind of mean values as in figure 48 
but only for the four middle 10° longitude fields between 20° and 60° west 
longitude along the shipping route Channel to New York. 

variations in the surface and air temperatures are in agreement if 
we examine the mean values for great regions. Figure 48 gives 
the mean of all six 10° longitude fields along the route Channel to 
New York. The similarity between the curves of the air pressure 
gradients (B) and the curves for the temperature' anomalies in the 
water ■ (W) and in the air (L) is undeniable. But particularly 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC III 

great is the similarity if we omit from the calculation of the mean 
value the most easterly and most westerly io° fields, and confine 
ourselves to the middle part as we have done in figure 49 (see also 
fig. 51 and 52). We see that in these curves the agreement with 
few exceptions might be called complete. 

The values found for the single fields in the Portugal-Azores 
region in many cases show poorer agreement (compare pis. 44 and 
45). But it must be remembered on the o'ne hand, that our obser- 
vational material here is less complete, that is, on the whole there 
are fewer observations for these fields. On the other hand, our 
process of determining the strength and direction of the wind is 
not accurate enough for this region, where we are in the influence 
of the anti-cyclonic high-pressure region near the Azores and also 
approach the region of the trades. However, the average of the 
fields, as shown in figures 50 to 52, has remarkably good agreement, 
in fact even a more complete agreement than in most of the other 
regions. 

In the 10° longitude fields of the Danish observations north of 
50° north latitude, as we have already said, we have based the values 
found for the surface temperatures on too few observations, so 
that we could not expect here as completely satisfactory agreement 
as elsewhere. In this region of the ocean, furthermore, the air 
pressure observations for the months within which our investiga- 
tion is confined are so few in number and are so scattered that 
the monthly isobars on the charts are somewhat hypothetical. How- 
ever, in spite of this we have drawn curves of the air pressure 
gradients and the surface temperatures both for January-Febru- 
ary and for March- April for these 10° longitude fields (see pi. 46). 
We find the agreement between them better than the unsatisfactory 
quality of the material would lead us to expect, particularly for 
the field between 30° and 39° west longitude. In the most easterly 
field here, as also farther south, the agreement between the curves 
for the air pressure gradients and for the surface temperatures is 
not very good. But these curves have a similarity with the cor- 
responding more southerly ones. 

If the wind is a principal cause of most of the observed varia- 
tions in the surface temperature from year to year, then we must 
expect that variations in the direction of the isobars and the in- 
tensity of the air pressure gradients would primarily influence the 
air temperature and bring still greater variations in this than in 
the surface temperature of the ocean. Our curves in figures 48 



9 10 




-Of- 



*06i 



W-l9''W.37-it'f°N 



Figure 50. 

93 99 1900 1 2 3 'f 5 6 7 



9 13 




pO-39'W. Z7-WN. 

Figure 52. ^'"''^ 

Figures 50 to 52. Average curves for all fields between "Sl^ and 45° north 
latitude and between 10° and 20° west longitude (fig. 50) ; between 20° and 30° 
west longitude (fig. 51) and between 30° and 40° west longitude (fig. 52). 
Br curves for the air pressure gradients for January, for February and for 
the resultant for both months (indicated by strong dotted lines). W: curve 
for the anomalies of the surface temperature from February 3 to March 4. 
L : curve for the anomalies of the air temperature from February 3 to March 
4. W-L: curve for the anomalies of the surface temperature minus the air 
temperature from February 3 to March 4. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC II3 

to 52 show that this on the whole is the case to a high degree, and 
furthermore they show, what was also to be expected, that for the 
variations in the air temperature in February the variations of the 
air pressure gradients in February are of greater importance than 
those in January. For it is obvious that variations in the wind act 
more directly upon the temperature of the air than upon that of 
the water, whose mass is more slowly affected. 

Although our observational material for the air temperature is 
so imperfect, yet the curves for the air temperatures in February 
and for the pressure gradients particularly in February show an 
unexpected agreement for the most of the ocean regions. It is 
clear that the variations of the air temperature are much greater 
than those of the surface temperature. It is also to be expected, 
as already said, that the action of the wind would not only make 
itself first felt on the air temperature, but also would produce in it 
greater variations than in the surface temperature of the water. 
The investigation of the anomalies of the surface temperature 
minus the air temperature, as in tables 9 to 11, W-L, must therefore 
be of interest. These anomalies are given by the curves W-L of 
the surface temperature minus the air temperature in plates 16 
to 45- 

In many fields there is a good correspondence between the varia- 
tions of these anomalies and the variations of the surface tem- 
peratures and the pressure gradients. This is particularly notice- 
able in the average curves for the greater southerly region in 
figures 50 to 52. It appears, for example, that throughout the 
years with particularly low surface temperature the air is generally 
much colder than the water, and therefore the difference between 
the surface temperature and the air temperature is very great. 
There is, as shown in figures 50 to 52, on the whole a very good 
agreement of the curve W-L with the curve B, particularly for 
February, but partially also for the average of January and February.^ 

Consequently the wind must be regarded as the principal direct 
cause of the observed variations in the winter temperature of the 
surface of the ocean. At times for example when the wind blows 
more continuously than usual from the northern directions of the 
compass, it leads in the first place to colder masses of air being 
driven southward and consequently the air temperature falls 
sharply. Later the colder water layers are driven by the wind into 
the fields covered by our observations. 



^ Notice that in our figures the curves for surface temperature minus air 
temperature are inverted. 



114 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

This transportation of cold water-masses from the north toward 
the south by the wind involves this pecuHarity, that the more north- 
erly water-masses are generally in consequence of their lower 
temperature of a higher density than the southerly and warmer 
water-masses. The northerly water-masses can therefore not be 
driven by the wind over the surface of the southern layers, but have 
a tendency to sink below them though obviously there is a tendency 
for these layers to mix by the action of the waves. Winds which 
bring colder water into the region of warmer will therefore not 
so easily produce considerable variations in the surface temperatures 
as winds which blow water in the reverse direction from warmer 
regions toward colder. On the other hand those winds which 
transport colder water towards warmer regions of the sea have a 
tendency to produce variations of the temperature in the upper 
layers of the ocean underneath the surface, since by such winds 
convection currents are set up in a vertical direction. But they 
have also the tendency to carry the warmer water-masses of the 
surface with them toward the south and to replace them with cooler. 

THE VARIATIONS IN HEIGHT OF THE WATER OF THE BALTIC SEA AS 

A PROOF OF THE ACTION OF THE WIND ON THE VARIATIONS OF 

THE SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC 

That the winds are a strongly contributing cause of the observed 
variations in the surface temperature in the Atlantic Ocean seems 
to be shown by the notable agreement between the variations of 
the temperature condition of the Atlantic Ocean in February and 
the variations of the average height of the water for the whole 
year in the North Sea and particularly in the Baltic Sea. We found 
that if the surface temperature in the Middle Atlantic Ocean in 
comparison with that on the east shore of the ocean in February 
was low, then the yearly mean height of the water in the North 
Sea, particularly in the Baltic Sea, and partially also on the Nor- 
wegian coast was high ; while if the surface temperature was high 
in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean in comparison with that at the 
shore of it the reverse condition was found. That the winds are 
of importance for this relation cannot be doubted. For we know 
that the height of the water along the coast depends upon the air 
pressure distribution and upon the winds, and it is therefore to be 
assumed that the observed variations in the average height of the 
water in the No'rth Sea and in the Baltic Sea is brought about in this 
way. We must therefore logically conclude that the same cause 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC II5 

produces the observed variations in relation between the surface 
temperature in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean and that of the 
east shore. To be sure our observations have been assembled for 
only the coldest part of the winter. We may assume, however, 
that the relation of this season holds good for other times of the 
year. 

We may well suppose the variations in the average height of the 
water may also be brought about by variations in the velocity of the 
currents which are not directly caused by the wind, but even if this 
less probable assumption should be admitted, it is particularly difficult 
to explain the variations in the observed relation of the surface 
temperature in the Atlantic Ocean by such variations in the cur- 
rent velocity. These appear to be naturally explained by the condi- 
tion of the wind. 

However, it may be urged on the other hand that the precipita- 
tion over regions draining into the North Sea and the Baltic Sea 
must be of influence particularly upon the height of the water of 
the Baltic Sea. But this influence must obviously be ot minor 
importance compared with that of the wind. A hindrance of the 
outflow of water at the portal of the Baltic Sea in consequence of 
the wind will obviously be of greater influence on the height of 
the water within than the greatest reasonable increase of the precipi- 
tation which may be imagined, so long as the outflow is not hin- 
dered in the Kattegat and in the Belts. 

A hindrance to the outflow of water from the Baltic^ Sea may 
be thought of in two ways. The winds can cause a rise of the 
height of the water in the North Sea at the mouth of the Kattegat 
or the winds in the Kattegat may hold back the water within the 
Baltic. In both cases there is to be expected a more or less inter- 
mittant renewal of the deeper lying waters in the Baltic. 

According to the Swedish investigations (see O. Pettersson, 1894, 
page 532) there was an inflow of salty water from outside in the 
deeper layers of the Gulmar- fjords at the mouth of the Kattegat 
in the spring and summer in the years 1890 and 1893. In the year 
1899 the ground water in the Gotland-AIulde in the Baltic was re- 
newed (see Krummel, 1907, pages 352 to 353). In the beginning 
of the year 1903 the ground water in Bomholm Deep and in the 
Danzig-Mulde was renewed. In the autumm of 1905 the ground 
water in the Gotland-Mulde and in the Danzig-Mulde was renewed 
and later in the following year in the Bornholm Deep (Krummel, 
1907, p. 301). 



Il6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

In the time between 1890 and 1906 it is exactly in the above men- 
tioned years 1890, 1893, 1899, 1903 and 1905-6, and only in these 
years that well-marked maxima in the height of the water of the 
Baltic and the easterly North Sea occurred. 

By means of the winds we may explain in a natural way the 
agreement between the observed relations in the surface temperature 
in the Atlantic Ocean and the surface temperature at Liepe's station 
I near Ouissant, as well in February as for the whole year, and 
also the agreement with the temperature in Hamburg in February 
and partially also with the yearly temperature for Hamburg which 
we have already referred to. 

ARE THE WINDS THE ONLY CAUSE OF THE GREAT VARIATIONS IN 
THE SURFACE TEMPERATURE? 

But even if we admit the conclusion that the winds are a principal 
cause of a larger proportion of the great variations of the surface 
temperature within our investigated fields, there is another question 
whether these variations are alone due to the winds of the locality 
or its immediate surroundings. The question can for example be 
put in this way : Are there not beside the variations in the tempera- 
ture produced by the displacement of masses of water by the wind, 
also similar' changes produced by water-masses which the currents 
carry along with them ? 

If this should be the case, then as we have already said, the 
course of the variations of the values of the surface temperatures 
minus the air temperature, must be opposite to those which we have 
found. The transportation of relatively cold water-masses must then 
cause the surface temperatures of the ocean to come nearer the 
temperature of the air and the difference between them will con- 
sequently be less than usual ; and the reverse should happen if the 
transported water is relatively warm. There arises then the ques- 
tion if variations of this kind are shown in our observations. That 
appears as we have said above to be the case in a considerable num- 
ber of instances. 

If we observe the temperatures in the single years, it appears that 
the variations in many cases are not alone due to the local winds. 
For example, this holds for February as also for March-April, 1904, 
when the temperature over the greater part of the Atlantic Ocean, 
particularly over the middle parts, became uncommonly low. The 
isobars and consequently also the winds at that time over our whole 
observational region had directions which more or less correspond 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC II7 

to negative anomalies in the surface temperature as our charts, 
plates 27 and 29, also show. We find, nevertheless, from the curves 
in figures 48 to 52 that the negative anomalies corresponding to 
the air pressure gradients in several fields were not so great that 
they would produce great negative anomalies in the surface tem- 
peratures. Furthermore it is also notable that the course of the 
variations of the curves for the anomalies of the air pressure gradi- 
ents from field to field in plate 28 is entirely different from the 
course of the variations of the curves of the anomalies of the sur- 
face temperature and the air temperature. 

If we take also into consideratio'n that over great regions of the 
earth not only the temperature of the ocean, but also of the air 
exhibited considerable negative anomalies (compare what has been 
said and also the chart pi. 28) , we must come to the conclusion that 
reactions were going on here which were due to other causes than 
the local winds ; more accurately stated, we may conclude that the 
negative anomalies of the air pressure gradients which we have 
found over the whole of the investigated region are due to the same 
causes as the low temperature of the ocean surface and the air 
over the greatest part of the earth. 

If we consider the Dutch material for the two earlier mentioned 
10° squares further south, we find that in these two fields the 
temperatures of the ocean surface was a minimum in February, 
1904, while on the other hand the direction and strength of the 
wind in January to February was not of the kind to bring on such a 
minimum. It must be remembered however, that the number of 
observations in these great fields was very small. 

We find besides that in a number of stations, particularly in the 
tropical regions, the temperature of the air for 1904 was uncom- 
monly low and in many places a minimum. As noted by Arctowsky 
(1912) the reverse of this is found for several regions of the earth. 
For example, in Honolulu, Bombay, and the most westerly United 
States there was a maximum of temperature in this year. 

This most probably indicates peculiar conditions of the distri- 
bution of the air pressure over the earth's surface, which also 
depended upon general causes. These, however, produced opposite 
effects both on the air temperature and the water temperature in 
different regions. As we shall notice later, there appears to have 
been on the whole a minimum air temperature over the whole earth's 
surface in the year 1904. 



Il8 SAIITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

POSSIBILITY OF A DISPLACEMENT OF THE OCEAN CURRENTS 

It must be taken into consideration that a fall or rise- of the sur- 
face temperature in the fields of the North Atlantic Ocean investi- 
gated by us is not necessarily a proof of corresponding changes in 
the temperature of the water-masses which are transported by the 
ocean currents. It may be that the changes rest merely on a dis- 
placement of these masses. The surface layers can for example 
be driven farther toward the south by the winds and yet at the same 
time the currents may be more rapid and their temperature in fact 
as high or even higher than before. In order to get a clearer view 
of these matters as they progress in the different 3^ears, we must 
have simultaneous records over the surface of the entire Atlantic 
Ocean and even then it would be difficult to decide if such a dis- 
placement actually took place. If we take the years 1899 and 1903 
when the wind circulation over the Atlantic Ocean was particularly 
lively, we might consider that the Gulf Stream drift was displaced 
further southward. Yet in spite of this it could very well be inten- 
sified and consequently the temperature in the water-masses of the 
Gulf Stream might be raised and this would in its turn produce a 
rise of temperature in the easterly region of the ocean where these 
warmer water-masses are carried toward the north. 

But consider the year 1904. Very low temperature prevailed over 
the whole region we have investigated both west and east and can 
it be believed that the current was again displaced further south ? 
Such an assumption appears to be very difficult to defend, since 
we find also in the far south fields covered by the Dutch investiga- 
tions and on the equator itself uncommonly low surface tempera- 
tures, and it seems as if the surface of the whole North Atlantic 
Ocean was in this year particularly low. 

INFLUENCE OF WINDS UPON THE AIR TEMPERATURE OVER 
THE CONTINENTS 

By means of our investigations of the influence of air pressure 
distribution, we have found that the air pressure or the winds have 
a very great influence on the variations of the surface tempera- 
tures of the ocean and also on the temperature of the air, but they 
cannot be the sole influences affecting these variations. This is 
shown by the consideration of the variations of the air tempera- 
ture over the continents on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. 

That the air pressure distribution or the winds have a very great 
effect on the variations of the air temperature over the continents 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC II9 

is plainly shown by our charts, plates 16 to 41. However, we find 
also that an apparently similar distribution of air pressure in the 
same month of different years is consistent with different effects 
upon the air temperature over Europe. We see, for example, that 
in the years 1905 and 1907 the air pressure distribution in January- 
February over the North Atlantic Ocean and the west coast of 
Europe had the same character, while the temperature distribution 
over west Europe in February was somewhat different. In Febru- 
ary, 1905 (see pi. 30), southwest Europe, Spain, and Portugal had 
negative temperature anomalies while middle and north Europe had 
positive anomalies. In February, 1907 (see pi. 34) > on the other 
hand, the temperature anomalies were negative in the whole west, 
south, and middle Europe and also on the west coast of Africa and 
northwards to southern Scandinavia. In northern Scandinavia the 
temperatures were considerably higher than in February, 1905. On 
the Atlantic coast of America the temperature anomalies were 
negative in February in both years. These negative anomalies 
had, however, a greater extension westward in 1905 than in 1907. 
In March, 1905 and 1907, the temperature conditions over west 
Europe were quite similar. 

The air pressure distribution in the easterly North Atlantic and 
west Europe are very similar to one another in January and Febru- 
ary, 1906 and 1908 (see pis. 32 and 36), with a well-developed 
tendency to produce cold winds, colder in 1906 than in 1908. But 
the temperature was opposed and was even very cold in the year 
1906 over France, Great Britain, and the Faroe Islands although 
very warm in the year 1908. Also in Hamburg and Norway it was 
warm. In January and February, 1907, there were, on the other 
hand, warm winds o'ver the ocean, but in spite of this, cold tempera- 
tures prevailed in February over western, middle, and southern 
Europe, even colder than in February, 1906. To be sure the winds 
in January and February on the European coast were weaker and 
also on the whole more northerly in 1907 than in 1906, but in 1908 
(see pi. 36) the pressure distribution was nearly the same as in 
1907, and in spite of it the temperature over the coast lands of mid- 
dle and south Europe was relatively high with positive anomalies. 
One is inclined to the impression that, as for example in 1907, the 
air temperature may be made low by special causes and one is led 
to think of those variations in the solar radiation which were found 
by pyrheliometric measurements and which indicated a secondary 
minimum of radiation in 1907. In March, however, unluckily for 



I20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

this explanation, the temperature relations were again reversed with 
positive anomalies over western Europe in 1907 and negative 
anomalies in 1908. 

January-February, 1899 and 1903, as also March of 1903, showed 
the same form of pressure distribution or wind conditions and 
there prevailed also the same temperature distribution with negative 
anomalies of the ocean surface and positive anomalies over Europe 
(see pis. 18, 26, and 27). 

January, February, and March, 1904 (see pis. 28 and 29), show 
similarly practically the same air pressure distribution and wind 
distribution as 1903 with well-marked negative anomalies of tem- 
perature over west Europe in February outside of south and mid- 
dle Europe, southerly of 50° north latitude. Similar conditions 
prevailed in the north of Norway in March, and Iceland in March, 
and partially also in February. This may be compared with March, 
1908, when positive anomalies appeared in the ocean in spite of cold 
winds and negative anomalies over the whole of west Europe, but 
not over Iceland and northern Norway. 

In March, 1905, and in January-February, 1899, there was a well- 
marked similar form of air pressure distribution as well as of 
temperature distribution. 

If the isobar charts are sufEciently trustworthy for our purposes 
so that these variations are real (and this we believe) we can 
think of no other reason for the strong discrepancies in the years 
when the temperature distribution deviates so far from what woHild 
be expected from the condition of the air pressure distribution than 
that unusual outside conditions have come in play at least over the 
continents. 

There are two causes which may be of importance to influence the 
temperature of the atmosphere. First, the heat condition of the 
ocean ; second, radiation conditions, such as the solar radiation, the 
transparency of the atmosphere, and the nocturnal radiation. It 
may well be that the circulation in the upper parts of the atmosphere, 
also the vertical circulation of the atmosphere may be of impor- 
tance, though it seems hardly probable that these should vary so 
much from year to year when the form of the air pressure distri- 
bution over the earth's surface is so similar. 

The first named cause, that is to say, the ocean influence, does 
not appear adequate to produce the deviations in all cases. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 121 

VIII. THE SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF THE OCEAN ON THE 
NORWEGIAN COAST IS DEPENDENT ON THE WINDS 

We shall now investigate what influence the winds produce on 
the surface temperature of the ocean along the coast of the conti- 
nents, and for this purpose shall employ the series of observations 
which have been made for a long term of years on the coast of 
Norway. 

Prof. Otto Pettersson and later also Meinardus have assumed that 
the surface temperature on the Norwegian west coast, at the light- 
houses Utsire, Helliso, and Ona, changes with the temperature of 
the water which is brought by the warm Atlantic current, the Gulf 
Stream, through the ocean to the Norwegian coast. This appears 
surprising, for it is well known that the surface water along the 
Norwegian coast where the observations referred to were made 
is notably coast water as indicated both by its salt contents and 
its temperature, and has very little similarity to the water which 
is carried by the Atlantic Ocean currents on the surface far out 
in the open ocean. 

The coast water is well stratified and the surface is very light on 
account of its high percentage of fresh water, hence the vertical 
circulation is greatly hindered, and on this account the yearly tem- 
perature amplitude of the thin surface layer is relatively very great, 
with very few low temperatures in winter and high in summer. It 
is therefore easy to see that here the winds may produce great tem- 
perature variations. 

PROBABLE ACTION OF THE WINDS ON THE COAST WATER 
TEMPERATURE IN WINTER AND SUMMER 

During the coldest part of the winter different conditions of the 
atmosphere would produce the following principal effects on the 
surface temperature on the Norwegian west coast. 

In calm weather, the clouds are generally few and the outgoing 
radiation consequently is strong with a considerable cooling of the 
surface particularly in the inner parts of the fjords. On the open 
ocean, this action is less notable on account of the vertical circula- 
tion and because the outgoing radiation is hindered by the foggy 
air, hence the surface temperature of the ocean increases consider- 
ably from the inner parts of the fjords toward the open sea. 

When the winds blow from the land, there is cold clear weather, 
strong outgoing radiation and consequently strong tendency to cool 
the surface. The cold surface water is driven out of the fjords, sea- 



122 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

wards, and tends to lower the temperature of the coast waters, 
" Skjargaard." By the land winds the ocean is relatively little 
disturbed. 

When the zvinds blow toward the land the warmer surface water 
is transported landwards. Since the sea winds on the west coast are 
relatively warm and attended by increased cloudiness, the outgoing 
radiation, and therefore the cooling, is diminished. By the wave 
actions the surface is warmed partly by mixing with underlying 
warmer water-layers and partly by the exchange of temperature with 
the air. All these causes tend to increase the surface temperature. 

In the warmest season of the year we must, on the other hand, 
expect exactly the opposite condition of affairs to that which we 
have detailed. Then the light surface layer of the coast water will 
be strongly heated and become considerably warmer than the under- 
lying strata and also warmer than the surface water lying further 
out in the open sea. Accordingly, one must expect with sea winds 
that the surface temperature of the sea by the lighthouses along 
the coast, as for example the Ona lighthouse, will fall and that 
the surface temperatures will rise with land breezes, or when it 
is calm, so that the surface layer of the coast water shall alone be 
efifective."^ 

RELATION BETWEEN AIR PRESSURE GRADIENTS AND WATER 
TEMPERATURES AT ONA AND TORUNGEN 

We shall first investigate the relation between the surface tem- 
perature of the sea at Ona Lighthouse on the Norwegian west coast 
(where we have a most complete series of observations.) and the 
winds as determined by the direction of the isobars and the intensity 
of the pressure gradients. We shall deal with the coldest time of 
the year, in February, and with the warmest, in August. 

In the manner already described, we have determined the direc- 
tion of the-isobars and the intensity of the pressure gradients near 
Stad at 62° 30' north, 5° east, and we give their mean direction 
and intensity by progressive vector diagrams for the eleven-year 
period 1889 to 1908. In those relating to the coldest time of the 



^However, land winds may at this time also produce cooling of the surface 
temperature of the ocean near the coast, because the warmer surface water of 
the land is driven off and the cooler underlying layers are brought up to the 
surface, but this occurs generally only for the fjords and the sea nearest the 
coast. It can for example scarcely occur at an island like Ona, which is much 
further out to sea. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 1 23 

year, February, we have designated those winds as positive for 
which the isobars at Stad were directed more towards the land than 
normal and negative, those in which the direction was more sea- 
wards. For the warm part of the year, August, the winds, that is, 
the isobars, were on the contrary designated negative when they 
came from the sea and positive when they were more southerly than 
the mean direction. 

By multiplying the sine of the so obtained negative or positive 
angle between the isobar directions of the single years and the mean 
isobar direction by the value found for the air pressure gradient, 
we obtained values given in table i6D and in the curve B of plate 
47, figure 2, February. 

The curve W for the surface temperatures at Ona Lighthouse in 
February shows a great similarity to the curve B of the air pres- 
sure gradients for Stad in February, which is the full-drawn curve. 
Still better agreement is shown with the mean for January and 
February, which is the heavy dotted curve computed according to 

the expression — ~ — (see pi. 47, figure 2, February). 

The curve for the surface temperature of Ona Lighthouse for 
August, which is the full-drawn line of plate 48, figure 2, July- 
August W, shows also a surprising similarity with the curve of the 
air pressure gradients for August, which is the full-drawn curve B, 
and yet better with the curve for the mean of the months July and 
August, which is the heavy dotted curve B. 

The following results which we had expected are confirmed. The 
temperature of the coast water at Ona varies with the variations of 
the air pressure gradients, that is to say, the winds, but oppositely 
in August and February. 

We will noAv investigate the relation between the air pressure dis- 
tribution and the surface temperature on the Norwegian south 
coast at Torungen Lighthouse, where the conditions are entirely 
different from those at Ona Lighthouse. Here the whole sea far 
from the land is covered to a great extent with coast water, which 
is transported along the coast by the Baltic current, which at almost 
all times carries its well-mixed water along by this locality south- 
westwards. We therefore cannot expect that the local winds woiild 
have the same kind of an influence on the surface layers as at Ona 
Lighthouse, depending on whether they are sea winds or land winds. 
We should rather expect that the weather conditions would govern 
the warming or cooling of the coast water or surface water of this 



124 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

Baltic current and so that the temperature and condition o£ the at- 
mosphere would play a greater part here than at Ona. 

In a preliminary reduction we treated the curves in a similar way 
to those at Ona, that is, regarded southerly and easterly deviations 
from the isobars as positive and westerly or northerly deviations 
as negative. We then found that the variations of the surface tem- 
perature at Torungen in February did not agree with the curve for 
the local wind relation. However, it proved that the easterly wind 
has a strong tendency to produce lower surface temperatures while 
the westerly winds tended to produce higher ones. We therefore 
set a boundary in the isobar directions which ran at from south io° 
east to north io° west. The winds or isobar directions which arise 
in the region westward of this boundary we regard as positive and 
those easterly thereof as negative, but in other respects we treat the 
results in the same manner as above mentioned. Thus we obtained 
curves for the air pressure gradients which were in very good agree- 
ment with the surface temperatures at Torungen Lighthouse in Feb- 
ruary (see pi. 47, fig. 2, Torungen, curves W and B). The agree- 
ment is quite surprisingly good, both as to the curve of the air pres- 
' sure gradients for February alone (the full-drawn curve B), or 
still better the mean of the January and February curves computed 

according to the expression ^^ which is the heavy dotted curve 

B. We find but one exception to a complete agreement, namely 
the year 1907, when the surface temperature at Torungen was 
somewhat lower than it should have been according to the air pres- 
sure gradients. Both January and February of this year, however, 
show depression of the curves. 

In the warmest part of the year, July and August, the agree- 
ment between the curves for air pressure gradients and the curve 
for the surface temperature for August at Torungen is not as good, 
as appears in plate 48, figure 2. This, however, should be expected, 
because the transported water-masses during this part of the year 
are able to play so great a part by the warming and cooling of the 
ocean. 

We will now investigate the relations of things in the other 
months. We find at Torungen a good agreement between the curve 
of the surface temperature for January and the curve of the air 
pressure gradients for January (see pi. 47, fig. i). However, the 
curve for December shows no similarity, nor does the mean curve 
of December and January. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I25 

The curve of the surface temperature, W, for March at Torungen 
shows a surprisingly good agreement with the curve of the air pres- 
sure gradients for March, (see pi. 48, fig. i, full-drawn curve B). 
An even better agreement is shown by the mean between February 
and March, which is the strong dotted curve B. 

In the other months of the year we must expect less close agree- 
ment between the curves of air pressure gradients and the curve of 
surface temperatures because so many other different factors are 
operating. 

We find a tolerable agreement between the curve of the surface 
temperatures for Ona for January and the curve of the air pres- 
sure gradient for Stad for January, but there are exceptions for 
the several years 1896, 1897, 1904, and 1910. The relation is no 
better if we take the curve for December (see pi. 47, fig. i). 

The curve of the surface temperature for March at Ona Light- 
house shows remarkably little correspondence with the curve of the 
air pressure gradients for March. On the other hand, there is a re- 
markable similarity to the curve of the air pressure gradients for 
February and also to the mean curve for February and March (see 
pi. 48, fig. i). In the other months of the year the agreements 
between the curves for the variations in the surface temperature and 
the variations of the air pressure gradients are not so good. For 
example, in January, there is little similarity between the curves 
and in the other months there is even less. This depends upon 
the fact that in these months the relations are more complicated 
and besides that other conditions ^ come into play. It must be 
remembered that the conditions of winter and summer are opposed 
and therefore, in the interval of time between, transition condi- 
tions occur. 

In our figures, we give also the curves for the surface tempera- 
ture, W, at Heliso and Utsire lighthouses. The curve for Heliso 
shows throughout the greatest similarity to the curve for the air 
pressure gradients for Stad, while the curve for Utsire shows 
perhaps a greater similarity to the curve of the air pressure gradi- 
ents for Torungen. But on the whole the results for both stations 
are such that they form a transition between the curves for To- 
rungen and the curves for Stad and Ona. 

RELATION BETWEEN AIR PRESSURE GRADIENTS AND AIR TEMPERATURE 
AT ONA, TORUNGEN, AND IN ALL NORWAY 

We have introduced in our figures curves for the air temperature 
at Ona, Torungen, and all Norway, as computed from the observa- 



126 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

tions of 22 meteorological principal stations. These values cover 
several different months investigated. For the air temperature 
curves there is a marked agreement with the curves of air pressure 
gradients. The reader should take notice that the temperature scale 
is twice as great for the water curves W, as for the air curves, L. 

For January, February, and March, the curve for Torungen, that 
for all Norway, and in part that for Ona show greater agreement 
with the corresponding air pressure curves for Torungen than with 
the curves for Stad, but there is great similarity to those for both. 
In January the curves of air temperature for Ona and for all Nor- 
way show a great similarity (see pi. 47, fig. iL, Ona, and L, Nor- 
way) . These two curves show certain agreement with the air pres- 
sure gradient curves B for Stad and for Torungen. 

In February the curve for air temperature for Ona agrees better 
with the curve for air pressure gradients for Torungen than for 
Stad. This is particularly noticeable in the year 1901 and also in 
1910 when the curve for surface temperature for Ona has a quite 
different run in comparison with the air pressure curve for Stad. 
The air temperature curves for Torungen and for all Norway are 
quite similar to the air temperature curve for Ona and agree very 
well with the air pressure curves for Torungen. As an example 
of a characteristic common to all three temperature curves, see for 
instance the rise of the years 1900 to 1903. This rise we find also in 
the curve of the air pressure gradients for Torungen, and not only 
for February but also for the mean between January and February, 
but not for the air pressure curve for Ona for the month of Febru- 
ary, which gives a marked maximum in the year 1901. This shows 
itself more strongly in the curve of surface temperatures for Ona 
than in the curve of air temperature. The explanation is plainly 
this : The winds as indicated by the isobars for February in this year 
had a strong northerly direction at Stad and at Ona Lighthouse and 
came from the ice ocean. It was a sea wind, which caused the rise 
of the surface temperature at Ona, but at the same time cold winds 
blew over Norway and the air temperature in February as well at 
Ona and Torungen as also in all Norway was relatively lower. 
These strong northerly winds appeared meanwhile not particularly 
favorable for the rise of the surface temperature at Heliso or 
Utsire, and least so at Torungen where the curves show no rise 
corresponding to the maximum which we find at Ona. 

In March the curve of air temperature at Ona shows no very good 
agreement with the curves of air pressure gradients either for Stad 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 12/ 

or for Torungen. The curves for air temperature at Torungen and 
for all Norway show generally a similarity with the curve of the 
air pressure gradients for Torungen for the month of March, but 
there are nevertheless many disagreements, as shown in figure i on 
plate 48. 

For August, the air temperature curve for Ona and all Norway 
shows agreement with the air pressure curves of August and the 
mean of July and August for Stad. 

AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE COAST 

WATER AND IN THE AIR OVER SCANDINAVIA, BOTH 

DETERMINED BY AIR PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION 

From what has gone before, we can conclude with certainty that 
the variations in the air pressure distribution control not only the 
surface temperature on the Norwegian coast, as at Ona and To- 
rungen, but also the air temperature in Norway during the coldest 
and warmest part of the year. Since the air pressure distribution 
(wind) has a simultaneous action upon the temperature of the coast 
water and the temperature of the land, we can expect that both 
these temperatures would follow in such a sequence that the char- 
acteristic variations would be a little earlier in the air than in the 
water. Such an agreement cannot be merely local but must be 
shown over great regions, because the air pressure distribution has 
a very extended sphere of influence. If, for example, the temperature 
variations for all Norway are compared with those in Stockholm, 
we find a complete agreement. We shall later return to the con- 
sideration of such comparisons (see fig". 75). 

In order to examine these correlations more carefully we have 
made a comparative investigation of the temperature variations 
of the Norwegian lighthouse stations, Torungen, Utsire, Heliso, 
and Ona, and the temperature variations at so far removed a 
locality as Stockholm. The results are given in figure 53. The 
pairs of curves A show the variations of the temperature devia- 
tions from month to month for 37 years, 1874 to 1910. From the 
monthly values we have computed consecutive 12-month means 
as shown in curves B, and from the latter also 24-month means, as 
shown in curves C, in order to bring out periodic phenomena. The 
sun spot curve, S, is introduced lowest in the figure. The tempera- 
ture scale is twice as great for the coast water, which has the scale 
on the right hand, as for the air with the scale on the left, because 
the variations of the air temperature are greater than those of the 



128 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 




NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I29 

surface temperature. The variations show a good agreement with 
one another. From the zigzag curve A one sees that the agree- 
ment descends even to the smallest peculiarities. For instance, see 
how quickly the variations follow one another in 1889, 1894 to 
1895, 1899, and so on, with almost complete parallelism. There is 
to be sure a small displacement between the curves oftentimes, so 
that strong maxima or minima show a tendency to appear earlier 
in the air in Stockholm than in the Norwegian coast water. This 
may be estimated as some days or even a couple of weeks, and shows 
itself very frequently in the monthly means we have employed. The 
reverse and earlier coming of the extreme in the water than in the 
air is found only, exceptionally. In the curves B and C, which 
we compare, one finds a well-marked parallelism, with a similar 
tendency to displacement to that shown also in the A curves. In 
the C curves, where periodic variations of two years or rational 
parts of it are eliminated, and principally only the longer periods 
can come to observation, the displacement is, however, shown quite 
distinctly. The maxima and minima fall in most cases earlier in 
the curve . for Stockholm than in that for the Norwegian light- 
house stations. 

From the nearly simultaneous occurrence and well-marked agree- 
ment of the features of these curves, it follows with great cer- 
tainty that no causal relation exists between the variation of the 
surface temperature on the Norwegian coast and the variations of 
the air temperature in Scandinavia, but rather that both variations 
must be due to the same cause, although the action takes place a 
little earlier in the air than in the coast water. 

The direct common cause of short interval variations is, accord- 
ing to our view, doubtless the variation in the air pressure distribu- 
tion, which is rendered very probable by the above described investi- 
gations on the relation between the air pressure distribution and 
the surface temperature at Ona and Torungen. We shall later speak 
of a yet more elegant proof of the accuracy of this assumption. 

Accordingly it is clear that the surface temperature on the Nor- 
wegian coast cannot be used as a measure of the temperature varia- 
tions of the water-masses of the warm Atlantic ocean currents in 
the North Sea, as has been done by Pettersson and Meinardus. In 
this connection it is interesting to remark that Pettersson found the 
best agreement between the surface temperature on the Norwegian 
coast and the air temperature in Sweden in February, and not so 
good in January. This corresponds exactly to what we have found. 



130 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

that the variations in the surface temperature at Ona, and the other 
Norwegian lighthouse stations in February are in closer agree- 
ment with the variations of the wind conditions than in January. 

IX. THE PERIODICITY OF THE VARIATIONS OF THE SURFACE 

TEMPERATURE OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN AND OF 

THE AIR TEMPERATURE OF THE CONTINENTS 

If we now go on to the investigation of the possible causes of 
these variations, it is obviously necessary to investigate whether 
they are entirely aperiodic or are in some way arranged in deter- 
mined periods which can be recognized. 

Unfortunately the series of observational material which was 
available to us for the Atlantic Ocean is too short in order to study 
the periods by the general methods of harmonic analysis. How- 
ever, we have endeavored to get an approximate analysis out of 
the mean temperatures which we have found for the whole investi- 
gated path across the North Atlantic Ocean for the series of years 
1898 to 1910. 

The table following figure 29 shows the observed anomalies of 
mean surface temperatures in all of the regions investigated by us 
of the North Atlantic Ocean between America and Europe. We 
have not employed the Danish fields north of 50° north latitude 
We have compared these values in different ways corresponding to 
the periods we wish to eliminate. The elimination was performed in 

the ordinary manner according to the formula: X= — ' ' ' " . 

We have eliminated first a two-year period, then a three-year period 
and finally a five-year period. 

The results are given graphically in figure 54. The curve a shows 
the orginally found anomalies of the mean temperature. The curves 
b, c, and d show the values after elimination of the two- three- and 
five-year periods. In the two latter curves (c and d') we give the 
results after the elimination of the short periods by full-drawn lines. 
The dotted line c shows the result of the three years' eliminatio'n as 
obtained directly from the observed values shown in curve a with- 
out regard to the two years' elimination. In the same way is shown 
by the dotted line d the result for the five years' comparison directly 
from the original values. The curve d has a very regular march. 
The dotted curve extends over eight years. The residual values 
which this curve yield may indicate periods of longer duration. One 
naturally thinks first of the eleven-year sun spot period and the 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I3I 

Bruckner period. Curve e shows a small part of the possible Bruck- 
ner period. In case the hypothetical values which may be found 
from this curve should be eliminated from the values which are given 
in curve d, one would obtain the values given in curve /. By means 
of the different eliminations, the amplitude of the different changes 



1898 1S99 J!»aO f90I 1902 1903 i90V 190S mi 1967 1998 1909 )9I0 




+0-5 


■iO-5 


TO 5 


-0-5 




§ 



SO 



Figure 54. The mean temperature of the North Atlantic Ocean Channel 
to New York, for February (a) according to the two-year (b), three-year (c), 
and five-year smoothing (d). b-d: curve for the difference between b and d. 
e : curve of the possible Buckner period, f : the value of the curve, d : after 
elimination of the curve e. S : the inverted sun spot curve. 



is somewhat diminished and in the construction of the curve / on 
figure 54 we have taken account of this reduction and have employed 
the values (f = i^-d — e) which are found according to Schreiber's for- 
mula (see Wallen, 1913). It seems proper to regard this curve as 
a part of the sun spot period and accordingly one may produce the 
curve as the dotted line shows, thus obtaining a regular curve in 
which the difference between two succeeding maxima amounts to 



132 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

eleven years. The sun spot curve itself is given below in figure 8 
but inverted. 

The two-year period is of small importance for the temperature 
of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is inconceivable but that periods of 
so short an interval must entirely disappear in that great region, 
for they would be found in different places in consequence of dif- 
ferent climatic conditions. The three-year period is more strongly 
brought out, but the period of five or five and a half years is particu- 
larly marked. This is the half of the sun spot period and is shown 
by the curve b-d. This is obtained with the help of the difference 
between the values which are given in the curves h and d and there- 
fore relates alone to the five-year period. 

It may appear arbitrary to assume that real periods for tempera- 
ture variations at the surface of the Atlantic Ocean can exist, but 
such periods obviously need not be primarily for the surface tem- 
perature of the ocean, but can be called forth by the same causes 
as for example periods in the air pressure distribution. However, 
as we have before said, our series of observations is all too short 
to draw certain conclusions with regard to the matter. 

It is to be noted that in the above analysis we have used only 
observations of February, but as stated already it appears as if 
the temperature of the surface of the Altantic Ocean in February 
is significant of the whole year and the changes which we observe 
then closely represent the changes for the whole year. In other 
parts of the Atlantic Ocean we have carried on the investigations 
for each month in the whole year for about the same period of 
time, which we have treated above. This has been done for the 
Danish fields north of 50° north latitude and by the aid of the 
International Central Bureau in Copenhagen, tables of monthly 
mean temperatures for the period 1900 to 1913 have been obtained 
for three fields in the southerly North Atlantic Ocean between 36° 
and 37° north, between 20° and 21° north, and between 0° and i° 
north. 

In figure 55 we give yearly curves for the four northerly Danish 
fields (see curves I to IV), as well as curves for the three fields of 
the Central Bureau (curves V to VII) according to the results of 
twelve-month consecutive means. 

We find here the same opposition that we have earlier called 
attention to between the curve for the easterly Danish field 0° to 9° 
west longitude (curve I) and the curves for the westerly Danish 
fields 20° to 29° west longitude and 30° to 39° west longitude, 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I33 



further out in the Atlantic Ocean (see curves III and IV). The 
curve I shows a tendency to an opposite march compared with the 
latter curves, while curve II for the intermediately lying io° longi- 
tude field shows a transition between the two types. Of the curves 



<900 



I90S 




Figure 55. The temperature curves smoothed by twelve-month consecu- 
tive means for the Danish fields (I to IV), for the three fields from the 
Central Bureau (V to VII), for the Dutch 10° squares in the Atlantic (VIII 
to IX), and in the Indian Ocean (X to XI). The inverted prominence curve 
(P) is given according to the observations in Palermo and Catania (the scale 
for P is on the left). M gives the character value for the degree of dis- 
turbance of the three magnetic elements in Potsdam with the scale at the right. 



134 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

for the three southerly fields, curve V, the most northerly of them, 
near the Portuguese coast, has most similarity to curve I, while 
curve VII for the field on the equator more in the middle of the 
Atlantic Ocean, shows, as was to be expected, more similarity to 
curves III and IV. 

In figure 55, we give the curves for the year temperature by con- 
secutive twelve-monthly means which were earlier obtained for 
the Dutch io° squares in the Atlantic Ocean at 15° to 24° north 
latitude and 35° to zi4° west longitude, 5° to 14° north latitude, 
25° to 34° west longitude (see curves VIII and IX), and in the 
Indian Ocean 0° to 9° north latitude, 70° to 79° east longitude, 
0° to 9° north latitude, 80° to 89° east longitude (see curve X and 
XL).'' Curve IX has, as was to be expected, much similarity to 
curve Yll for the field on the equator. The two curves X and XI 
for the Indian Ocean have also much similarity to the Atlantic 
tropical curves. On the other hand the curve VII for the most 
northwesterly Dutch field, at 15° to 24° north latitude and 35° to 
44° west longitude, has a more mixed character." The first part, 
up to the years 1905 or 1906, bears much similarity to curves V and 
VI and also with the curves X and XI of the Indian Ocean, while 
the last part has less similarity with the other curves and goes in 
part opposite to the more equatorial curves VII and IX. 

It has been shown that the monthly temperature values for Peter- 
sen's single stations in the Atlantic Ocean along the route Channel 
to New York can not be regarded as entirely trustworthy, particu- 
larly in the western part of the ocean. If, however, we employ 
the temperatures of the eastern stations east of 47° west longitude, 
(see fig. 13) and the monthly means for two and three stations 
combined, it is to be expected that we shall obtain comparatively 
trustworthy values, particularly if we take twelve-monthly con- 
secutive means. The temperatures in this part of the ocean, particu- 
larly in the most easterly parts, east of 40° west longitude, are 
indeed comparatively uniform over great stretches. The four curves, 
P A'^II-VIII and P I-II of figure 56 give the values obtained in this 
way for successive twelve-monthly consecutive temperature means 



^ As mentioned already, the values found for the temperature for these 
Dutch fields in the Atlantic Ocean are not very trustworthy since the fields 
are too great and the observations for each month often very few. In spite 
of this one may perhaps hope that the worst inaccuracies are eliminated in the 
twelve-monthly means. The temperature values for the two fields in the 
Indian Ocean are better, for the observations are much more numerous and 
the relations are very similar. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 1 35 

I88S% 1890 1895 1900 




117° 



1895 



1900 



Figure 56. Temperature curves smoothed by successive twelve-monthly 
means for Petersen's stations I to VIII (P VII to VIII- P I to II) in the 
North Atlantic in the shipping^ course Channel to New York and for Liepe's 
stations I to VIII (L I-L VIII) in the North Atlantic between 48° north and 
2° north. Si Ri : the inverted curves for sun spots and prominences according 
to the observations at the Osservatoria del Collegio Romano. S:, R2 : the 
same curves direct. PC, the prominences according to the observations in 
Palermo and Catania. At the bottom is given the inverted curve for the 
difference of air pressure between 30° north latitude 30° west longitude and 
Sao Thiago (Cape Verde Islands). 



136 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

for Petersen's stations VIII and VII combined (cut-ve PVII- 
VIII) ; Stations VI and V '(PV, VI) ; stations IV and III (P 
III and IV) and stations II and I (PI, II). We give the cor- 
responding curves for Liepe's stations, I, II, III, V-VII (see curves 
L.I to L.VIII). 

We see that the curves for Petersen's stations agree well to- 
gether. The greatest disagreement we find in curves P VII-VIII 
for stations VIII and VII the two most westerly of the stations. 
used where it would be expected since the isotherms lie so near 
together. Elsewhere one finds a gradual transition in these curves 
from west towards east, and then a further transition from the 
curve PI II, for Petersen's most easterly stations II and I to the 
curves for Liepe's stations I and II (curves LI, LII) and further 
southward. 

The development in these curves is so gradual that without 
having noticed the transition a type is obtained in the curves L-III, 
L-V and L-VI which in its principal features is opposite to the 
type of the curves P-VII to P-VIII and P-V to P-VI. To a great 
extent we find maxima in the last curves as opposed to minima in 
the first. It is exactly the same opposition which we have already 
several times mentioned between the temperature variations in the 
middle parts of the North Atlantic Ocean (P-VII- VIII, P-V-VI, 
L-VII, L-VIII) and in the most eastern parts of it (curves L-I, 
L-VI). We see here that this eastern efifect stretches southwards 
at least up to Liepe's stations VI at i8° north latitude, between 
Africa and the Cape Verde Islands. 

All these curves in figures 55 and 56 show good agreement in 
the temperature variations which prevail on the one side over wide 
stretches of the Middle Atlantic Ocean and also of the Indian 
Ocean, and on the other side over wide stretches of the most 
easterly part of the Atlantic Ocean between the tropics and 60° 
north latitude. 

Our figure 56 shows still more. The curves for the middle part 
of the ocean (curves P-VII-VIII, P-III-VI, L-VII, L-VIII) have 
in part similarity to the inverted curves of sun spots and promi- 
nences (curves S^ and Ri, at the top of the figure) while the curves 
for the most easterly part of the ocean, particularly the curves 
L-II and L-IV show more similarity to the direct curves of sun 
spots and prominences (curves S,, Ro ^^'^ PC). 

As one may see, there is in these different curves an indication 
of a two-year period (see fig. 55, curves I, V, VI; fig. 56, curves 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 1 37 

P-I-II, L-II to L-V) and a three-year period (see particularly 
fig. 55, curves III, IV, and VII to IV; fig. 56, curves P-VII, 
VIII, P-III-IV). These three-year periods agree with the cor- 
responding periods of the prominences quite definitely. See for 
example in figure 56, curves L-V and L-VI compared with Rg for 
the prominences, as obtained by the Osservatorio del Collegio 
Romano. As we have mentioned above, the curves show a certain 
similarity to the sun spot curve which points toward an eleven- 
year period. In order to bring these periods distinctly to view, we 
have taken the yearly means for the calendar years of temperature 




Figure 57. Three-year smoothed curves of surface temperature. I : for the 
Danish field 20° to 29° west longitude 50° to 57° north latitude. II : for the 
Danish field 30° to 39° west longitude 50° to 53° north latitude. Ill : for 
Petersen's stations III to VIII, 22° to 46° west longitude. IV: for the 
Dutch 10° square from 5° to 14° north latitude 25° to 34° west longitude. V : 
for Liepe's most southerly stations VII to VII at 2° to 8° latitude. VI : 
for the equatorial field at 0° north latitude, 29° to 31° west longitude, see also 
figures 55, curve VII. VII : for the two Dutch fields in the Indian Ocean from 
0° to 9° north latitude 70° to 89° east longitude, see also figure 55, curves X 
and XL M : for the degree of disturbance of the three magnetic elements 
in Potsdam. This curve is given with its, scale at the left and the curve 
inverted. S : for the relative sun spot numbers. This curve is given with its 
scale on the right, curve inverted. 



for the different fields and have subjected them to three-years' 
smoothing. 

In figure 57 we give in graphical form the results obtained in 
this way for temperature values of fields in the middle part of the 
North Atlantic. These include the Danish fields 20° to 29° west 
longitude and 30° to 39° west longitude, curves I and II ; Peter- 
sen's stations III to VIII combined into one curve III ; the Dutch 
10° squares at 5° to 14° north latitude and 25° to 34° west longitude, 
curve IV ; Liepe's stations VII-VIII, shown in curve V ; the equa- 
torial field of the International Central Bureau 0° north latitude, 29° 



138 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 

to 31° west longitude, shown in curve VI. Finally we give a similar 
curve VII for the two Dutch 10° squares in the Indian Ocean com- 
bined. At the bottom of the figure is shown a curve S for the sun spot 
relative numbers and the curve M for the degree of disturbance 
of the three magnetic elements in Potsdam (characteristic mean 
according to Eschenhagen's system). The values of curves S and 
M are obtained by three years' smoothing and the curves are inverted. 

On the whole these temperatures curves, I to VII, give un- 
questionable agreement with the sun spot curve though with some 
irregularities. The curve III and curve II combined show the two 
sun spot periods between the sun spot maxima in 1883 and 1905. 
This is the case with the combined curve V and VI. The minima 
and maxima of these curves do not coincide, however, exactly with 
the maxima and minima of the sun spots, but come a little later, see 
for instance the years 1884, 1890 and 1894. Sometimes earlier, as in 
the years 1904-5, 1909-10, and also the minimum of curve V in the 
year 1891. The curve III has a depression in the years 1899 to 1901 
when it was sun spot minimum, while the curves II and I have 
very well marked maxima in these years. 

The curves we have compared (see figs. 21 and 22) for the 10° 
longitude fields of the route Channel to New York show a phase 
displacement of the temperature minimum and also of the maxi- 
mum, particularly in February, so .that the minimum and maximum 
occur earlier in the western part of the ocean between 50° and 
60° west longitude, than further east at 20° to 29° west longitude. 
A similar displacement of the minimum and also of the second 
maximum is shown by the smoothed I, II, IV, and VI, figure 57. The 
minimum and maximum are found earlier on the equator (curve 
VI) than further north (see curves IV, II and I). Such a displace- 
ment of the minimum and of the maximum is, however, not to be 
seen on the consecutive twelve-monthly smoothed curves III, IV, 
VII, and IX of figure 55. 

The Atlantic temperature curves, particularly IV and VI, have 
also the same character as the curve VII for the Indian Ocean, 
only that this latter shows very low temperature values in the year 
1909 and 1910. By comparing the Atlantic curves I, II, IV, and 
VI with the inverted sun spot curve S, of figure 57, one sees that 
the temperature minima are one or two years before the sun spot 
maximum, and the temperature maximum of 1909 and 1910 was 
even as much as two or three years before the sun spot minimum. 
However, as regards the minima, the temperature curves I, II, IV 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 1 39 

and VI show better agreement with the magnetic curve M. On 
the other hand, as already remarked the minima of curve III fell 
in the years 1884 and 1894 a year after the sun spot maxima and 
the maximum in the year 1890, a year after the sun spot minimum. 
These yearly temperature curves I, II, IV, and VI show also un- 
doubted similarity to curve f of figure 54. There appears, however, 
to be some phase, displacement, but this may be due to some special 
accidental causes. 

The curves of the eastern fields of the Atlantic Ocean show at 
least in part, as already remarked, a direct similarity with the sun 
spot curve. We have computed the mean of the temperature 
value for Liepe's stations I, II and III and have carried through 
a three years' smoothing of the observations. The temperatures 




Figure 58. Three-year smoothed curves of surface temperature. I : for 
Liepe's stations I to III. II : for the most easterly Danish field from 0° to 9° 
west longitude 58° to 59° north latitude. Ill for Liepe's stations V and VI. 
IV : the two most northerly fields from the Central Bureau at 30° and 36° 
north latitude, see also figure 55, curves V and VI. V : for the air temperature 
in southwest Siberia. S : curve of the vertical sunspot numbers with the 
scale on the left. 



for his stations V and VI, have been treated in the same way. 
The results given in curves I and III of figure 58, curves II and IV 
representing the temperatures of the Danish fields 0° to 9° west 
longitude 50° to 59° north latitude are similarly obtained, and the 
two fields of the Central Bureau, at 36° north latitude and 20° north 
latitude (see fig. 55, curves V and VI) and finally curve V for the 
air temperature in southwest Siberia are also given. Above is the 
curve S for the sun spot numbers. 

During the sun spot period 1889 to 1901, the smoothed tempera- 
ture curves I to IV show quite good agreement with the sun spot 
curves, except that the temperature curves I and III show four 
shorter periods within this long period. In the next sun spot period, 
after 1901, curves II and IV have a tendency to go opposite to the 



1885 



1890 



1895 




Figure 59. S : relative sun spot numbers. The observed monthly mean 
minus the smoothed monthly mean according to Wolfer. S : the smoothed 
monthly mean of relative sun spot numbers according to Wolfer. T : tem- 
perature curve for Petersen's combined twelve stations Channel to New York. 
LI, LIV, LVII : temperature curves for Liepe's stations I, IV, and VII 
at 47°, 30° and 8° north latitude, 6°, 15° and 35° west longitude. A: the 
monthly anomalies of the observed temperature values. B : the same with 
twelve-monthly smoothing from values A. C : the same with thirty-three 
monthly smoothing from values B. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I4I 

sun spot curve, particularly curve II, but in this period also are 
included three or four shorter periods. 

The direct agreement betvv^een the temperature curves for the 
eastern part of the North Atlantic and the sun spot curves is shown 
in figure 59. Curves C were obtained by taking consecutive thirty- 
three month means of the temperature values. The short periods 
are thus to a great extent eliminated. These curves for Liepe's 
stations I and IV (L-I and L-IV) show a distinct agreement with 
the sun spot curve S2 which is the lowest of the figure, only it is 
to be observed that this curve is inverted. The two temperature 
curves have minima at sun spot minima and high temperatures 
at sun spot maximum in the years 1893 and 1894. In addition the 
corresponding curves B for L-I and L-IV show a strongly marked 
division of the sun spot period in three or four shorter periods 
similar to those of the prominences. 

It seems clear that in the surface temperature of the Atlantic 
Ocean several periods occur for which one of about three years is 
particularly notable and also a longer period which corresponds 
with the sun spot period. The temperatures vary in these periods 
in the middle part of the ocean oppositely to the sun spot num- 
bers, while in the eastern parts they increase more or less directly. 
As it has repeatedly been remarked, our observational series is 
all too short in order to give certain conclusions with regard to these 
matters. Considerably longer are the observational series of Peter- 
sen and Liepe, but they are not sufficient, and still longer series of 
ocean temperatures are unfortunately not available. In the lack 
of sufficiently extensive observational material in the ocean and 
because we have found great agreement in general between the con- 
dition of the ocean and of the air, we have undertaken to investigate 
the various meteorological elements which have the advantage of 
having been published for a long period of years. 

We will first compare the variations in the surface temperature of 
the Atlantic Ocean found by us with the variations of the air tem- 
perature in dififerent regions of the earth for the period of years 
1898 to 1910. Such a comparison is given in figures 60 and 61. 
Curves I to IV in these two figures show the variations in the air 
temperature in different regions according to Mielke's tables (1913) 
given in Koppen's investigation of 191 4. The other curves show 
the variations in the surface temperature in the different parts of 
the Atlantic Ocean partly for the whole year, partly only for the 
month of February. 



142 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



In figure 60 one may see that the curves for the temperature varia- 
tions both for the whole Atlantic Ocean and for the middle part 
of it have great similarity to the curves of variation of air tempera- 
ture in the tropics and in the south temperate zone, also for the 
M^hole earth and in part a similarity to those of North America. 



1898 S9 1900 1 




Figure 60. Curves for the yearly anomalies of air temperature according 
to Mielke in North America, the Tropics, Southern Temperate Zone, the 
whole earth (I to IV), the surface temperature in the Danish field 20° to 
29° west longitude, and in the two Danish fields 20° to 29° west longitude 
and 30° and 39° west longitude (VI, a for the calendar year, b for September 
to August), in the equatorial field of the Central Bureau (IX&), and at Liepe's 
station VIII (IXa). The temperature anomalies of the surface along the 
route Channel New York in February (VII), and February- April (VIII). 

This similarity to the yearly variations of air temperature holds 
for the surface temperature, both for the whole year, as shown in 
curves V, VI, and IX, and for February, shown in curve VII, and 
also for February to April, curve VIII. 

Figure 61 shows great similarity between the curves for the varia- 
tion in the surface temperature in the eastern part of the Atlantic 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I43 

Ocean both for the whole year (curves V, VI, and IX) and for the 
month of February (curve VII) with the curves for the variation 
of the yearly temperature of the air in the north temperate zone 
in Eurasia and to a certain degree also in western middle Europe 
and in Russia. 

3838 39 iHfifl 12:^'«56 7 89 19^0, ., 




Figure 61. I to IV : the yearly anomalies of the air temperatures in west 
and central Europe, Russia, Eurasia, and the northern temperate zone (accord- 
ing to Mielke). V to VI: the anomalies of the surface temperature of the 
year (a January to December, b September to August) for the two Danish 10° 
longitude fields 0° to 9° west longitude (VI) and 0° to 9° west longitude 
and 10° to 19° west longitude (V). VII: temperature anomalies for Febru- 
ary for our most easterly 10° longitude fields in the region Portugal to the 
Azores. VIII : temperature anomalies of the year (a January to December, 
b September to August) for Liepe's station I. IX : yearly anomalies for 
Liepe's station III (a January to December, b September to August) and for 
the most northerly field of the Central Bureau (c). 



A corresponding similarity for two different types of curves we 
find also for a considerable period of years if we compare the tem- 
perature variations at Petersen's and Liepe's stations with the air 
temperature variations in the above mentioned regions of the earth. 
In figure 62 we give curves I and II for the temperature variations 



144 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



of Petersen's middle stations III to VIII (between 22° and 47° 
west longitude; see also fig. i, stations 3 to 8) and in Liepe's three 
most southerly stations (pi. 15, stations VI, VII, VIII) which cor- 
respond best with the relations of the middle part of the Atlantic 
Ocean. These curves we have continued on by means of the curves 
lb and lib for the most western Danish fields 30° to 39° west longi- 
tude, and the Dutch field 5° to 14° north latitude, 25° to 34° west 




Figure 62. Yearly anomalies of the surface temperature (I to III, VIII) 
and the air temperature (I to VII). S: inverted curve of the smoothed 
relative sun spot numbers according to Wolfer. Scale on the left. P-C: 
daily number of prominences according to the observations in Palermo and 
Catania. Scale at the left where 100 equals lo.o. R : daily number of promi- 
nences observed at the Observatory of the Collegio Romano. 



longitude. Curve Ilia for Liepe's station 8 near the equator we have 
continued on by means of curve Illb for the equatorial field of the 
Atlantic, whose temperature was furnished us by the Central Bureau. 
These temperature curves for Petersen's and Liepe's stations and 
the three other fields show an unmistakable similarity to the tempera- 
ture curves for the air in the tropics and in the other great regions 
which are mentioned above. Curve VIII for the surface tempera- 
ture in the Indian Ocean shows also great similarity to the other 
curves. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I45 

In figure 63, curves I to III, we show the yearly variations in the 
surface temperature at Petersen's two most easterly stations I to 
II (at 12° and 18° west longitude) and at Liepe's three most 
northerly stations which are furthest east in the Atlantic along the 
coasts of England, France, and Portugal, (see fig. i, stations I and 
II, pi. 15, stations I, II, and III). The curve for Liepe's station I 
is continued by means of the curve of the most northerly of the 
fields of the Central Bureau at 36° north (see curve Illb). These 
curves show an unmistakable similarity to the curves IV to VI for 
the air temperature in Eurasia, in the north temperate zone and 




Figure 63. Yearly anomalies of the surface temperature (I to III) and 
the air temperature (IV to VII). S: direct sun spot curve, scale on the left. 
R : the number of prominences observed at the Observatory of the Collegio 
Romano. Scale at the left where 100 equals lo.o. C: daily number of 
prominences observed at Catania. 

in west and middle Europe. We have also given a temperature 
curve VII for southwest Siberia and this shows a surprising agree- 
ment with the curves for Liepe's most northerly stations. 

On figure 58 we give a three year smoothed curve (V) for the 
temperature in southwest Siberia. As may be seen, there is a good 
agreement between this curve and the curves I to IV, particularly 
the two curves I and III for Liepe's stations I to III and V to VI. 

That so good agreement is found between the temperature varia- 
tions in Siberia and the surface temperature in the fields of the ocean 
which experience the influence of the Azores pressure maximum is 



146 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

not surprising in view of Hildebrandsson's theory, since Siberia has 
a well-marked pressure maximum in winter which is the most defin- 
ing part of the year for the temperature. The two regions are 
therefore near two action centers of the same kind where the tem- 
perature variations should naturally agree. It is more surprising 
on the other hand, that the yearly curve for Siberia also shows 
similarity to the yearly curves for the most easterly Danish fields 
between o° and io° west longitude far north between 58° and 60° 
north latitude. (Compare fig. 63, curves VII and lb). This lies 
completely under the influence of the Icelandic pressure minimum 
and according to Hildebrandsson should show an opposite march 
in the temperature variations. However, as we shall show later, 
there is a very natural explanation for this condition of affairs. 

In figures 62 and 63 at the bottom are given curves for the sun 
spots (S) and for the protuberances (R, PC, and C). In figure 
62 these curves are shown inverted, as indicated by the scale at the 
right. One sees that great similarity exists between these curves 
and the temperature curves of both figures, and even the small 
variations of the prominence curves, for example, in the years 1884 
to 1 901, are found in several curves for the surface temperature and 
for the air temperature, although part of the variations of figure 62 
and 63 occur in opposite senses. 

X. EARLIER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE RELATION BETWEEN 
VARIATIONS OF SOLAR ACTIVITY AND THE METEORO- 
LOGICAL PHENOMENA ON THE EARTH 

Recent investigations have made it more and more clear that a 
dependence exists between the variations of different phenomena on 
the earth and the variations of the activity of. the sun. Among 
these variations are the number and extent of the sun spots, the 
faculae and the prominences. That an intimate connection exists 
between these and the magnetic forces and the Northern Lights 
has been known as the result of numerous observations, but it has 
gradually become more probable that there are short and long periods 
in the variations of meteorological elements on the earth and the 
corresponding periods in the activity of the sun. It is a priori prob- 
able that variations in the solar activity, either directly or indirectly, 
must call forth corresponding variations in the meteorological ele- 
ments in the earth's atmosphere. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I47 

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS AND SUN SPOTS 

Only a short time after the discovery of sun spots by the EngHsh- 
man Harriot on December lo, 1610, the German Joh. Fabricius on 
March g, 1611, the Italian Galileo, and the German Jesuit Scheiner, 
the Jesuit Father Riccioli in the year 165 1 announced that with a 
decrease of the sun spots the temperature of the earth increases and 
with an increase of them it diminishes. Later on many investiga- 
tors occupied themselves with this matter of whom some found the 
relation to be inverse, the temperature rising with increasing num- 
bers of sun spots. Among the latter may be mentioned William 
Herschel (1801), who came to this conclusion through studies of 
the wheat prices in Windsor, 

The Bavarian astronomer Gruithuisen came to the same conclu- 
sion in 1826, but he also made the following peculiar announcement 
which was based on thirty-six years' experience in Munich. " Settled 
fine weather occurs on the earth, when on the sun the variable 
weather (that is, sun spot formation) ceases. Great spots call forth 
on the earth variable weather differing greatly in different localities. 
The more scattered the spots occur, the less does the temperature of 
the earth's atmosphere rise since only spot groups or great spots 
send forth more heat." (See Mielke, 1913, p. i). 

Alfred Gautier (1844) of Geneva, like many others, arrived at 
the conclusion that years of many sun spots were colder than those 
with few. He also made the valuable discovery that a periodicity 
occurs in the spots and he determined the period as about ten years, 
that is, five years after each sun spot maximum there follows a mini- 
mum."^ This period which had been observed since 1825 by Schwabe, 
was soon more accurately and thoroughly determined by Rudolf 
Wolf in Zurich, who found it to be eleven and one-ninth years. 

We can mention here only a few of the investigations in this 
field, and must refer to the historic treatises on the subject, as 
for example those of von Hahn (1877), Fritz (1878-1893), S. 
Gunther (1899), Arrhenius (1903), Hann (1908), Wallen (1910), 
and Mielke (1913). 

After the assembly of a great quantity of observational material, 
taken over the period of time from 1744 (or even 1719 at Berlin) 
to 185 1 at Milan, Vienna, Kremsmunster, Hohenpeissenberg, Prague, 



^Already in the year 1776 the Dane Horrebow in his day book of unpub- 
lished observations indicated the probability that one would find a period in 
the variations of the sun spots and that this might also be of importance to 
the planets which are carried on by the sun and lighted by it. 



148 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

Berlin, St. Petersburg, Fritsch (1854) came to the conclusion that 
the temperature during increase of sun spots fell off yearly about 
0.5° C. and vice versa, increased to that amount with decreasing 
sun spot activity. R. Wolf came to similar results in the year 1859 
by the investigation of the temperature series at Berlin, and Zim- 
mermann also from the Hamburg observations. 

The most thorough investigations of recent times are those of 
W. Koppen published in the year 1873. He used observations at 
403 stations which he divided into 25 regions distributed over the 
whole earth, and which he separated into five climatic zones. He 
reached the conclusion that the heat maximum in the tropics is 
from a half year to one and a half years (on the average nine- 
tenths year) before the corresponding sun spot minimum, and more 
retarded the further one goes from the equator. The temperature 
minimum in the tropics occurs about the time of sun spot maximum. 
The temperature variations show themselves most regularly and 
distinctly in the tropics with an average amplitude of 0.73° C, fall- 
ing off in magnitude towards the poles. The temperature amplitude 
at the investigated stations outside the tropics had an average value 
of 0.54° C. 

Koppen found besides that the agreement between temperature 
variations and sun spot variations is not always the same. While 
the temperature curve in the period from 1816 to 1859 followed 
closely the inverted sun spot curve, before and after this time, there 
was only a slight degree of correspondence. By later investiga- 
tions in the year 1881 Koppen found that disagreements between the 
two curves lasted from 1859 ^o 1875. 

Schuster (1885) came to the same conclusion as Koppen. R. Wolf 
advanced the view (Astr. Mitt. XXXIV) that in the year 1859 the 
sun spot curve quite radically changed its form, and together with 
it also the curve of the variation of the magnetic declination. Blan- 
ford (1891) found, however, that for the later times there is a good 
agreement between both curves as shown by the collection of numer- 
ous observations for India and he concluded therefrom that the 
earlier found disagreement after i860 depended mainly on lack of 
exact observations. 

Blanford published also (1891) a series of temperature measure- 
ments which were taken by Prof. Hill with the solar thermometer, 
that is, the black bulb and vacuum thermometer, for the years 1875 
to 1885 in Allahabad. The measured mean value for the year varied 
oppositely as the sun spot numbers and was 3.7° C. (6.6° F.) higher 
at sun spot minimum than at maximum. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I49 

About the same time that Koppen's treatise already referred to 
was published, spectroscopic investigations that were made, particu- 
larly by Lockyer, indicated that the sun is probably hotter at the 
time of sun spot maximum. The results of Koppen and others that 
the air temperature of the earth is colder at maximum than at mini- 
mum seemed therefore to be paradoxical. This was explained by 
Blanford (1875) by suggesting that the air temperature of the land 
stations such as those which Koppen investigated must be deter- 
mined not by the quantity of heat that falls on the exterior of the 
planet but by that which penetrates to the earth's surface, chiefly to 
the land surface of the globe. The greater part of the earth's sur- 
face being, however, one of water, the principal immediate effect of 
increased heat must be the increase of evaporation and therefore as 
a subsequent process the cloud and to rain fall. Now a cloudy 
atmosphere intercepts the greater part of the solar heat, and the 
re-evaporation of the fallen rain lowers the temperature of the 
surface from which it evaporates and that of the stratum of air 
in contact with it. The heat liberated by cloud condensation doubt- 
less raises the temperature of the air at the altitude of the cloudy 
stratum, but at the same time we have two causes at work equally 
tending to depress that of the lowest stratum. Accordingly it must 
be expected that an increase of the evaporation and of the rain by 
increased solar activity would cause a diminution of the tempera- 
ture over the earth's surface. 

S. A. Hill (1879) investigated the absolute yearly temperature 
variation in the mean of different stations in North India and found 
that the greatest variation occurred in the neighborhood of the mini- 
mum of sun spots and the smallest variation in the neighborhood 
of the sun spot maximum. The agreement was not particularly 
good. Great departures occurred and the investigation embraced 
only the years 1866 and 1878. More trustworthy results he thought 
to obtain by investigating the mean yearly variation of the monthly 
mean of the temperature of different stations in North India for 
the years 1863 to 1878. He found that the greatest yearly varia- 
tion occurred one or two years after the minimum of sun spots and 
the smallest variation in the year after the sun spot maximum. 
This relation, if such relation exists, seems more clearly to occur the 
further we go toward the northwest in India. He himself, however, 
notes that the observational material is very fragmentary. He 
appears to be of the opinion that since an increase of the amplitude of 
yearly heat variation probably is more associated with a greater 



150 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

summer heat than Avith the greater winter cold, the relation which he 
found, if it exists, can only be explained by increased solar radiation 
at the time of sun spot minimum. 

Dr. Hahn (1877) has shown that for Leipsic the difference of 
the absolute yearly extremes of the temperature varies directly as 
the sun spots. This is completely confirmed by Liznar (1880) by 
observations at eight other stations in Europe. In the years of sun 
spot maxima occur the highest temperature maxima and the lowest 
minima, while in years of sun spot minima the relation is inverted. 
(Compare Hann 1908, p. 358). Liznar also investigated the tem- 
perature variations at thirteen stations, among these St. Petersburg, 
Calcutta, and Hobart (Tasmania), and found for all some agree- 
ment with the eleven-year sun spot periods. For Vienna, Prague, 
Tuschaslau, Briinn, and Trieste, 1857 to 1870, he found that the 
mean of the daily amplitude was smallest in the years 1859 ^^^ i860, 
and 1870-71, at sun spot maximum, while the greatest daily ampli- 
tude occurred about two years from the sun spot minimum. This 
was accordingly exactly opposite to what he found for the yearly 
range of temperature. 

Unterweger (1891) believed that he found a short period of 
between 26 and 30 days in the sun spots and in the solar activity. 
This period while not produced by the rotation of the sun yet was 
influenced by it and occurred in the average in 29.56 (±0.5) days. 
Further, he found a period of 69.^1. days fairly strongly developed 
and besides this various others less distinct. In a review of Unter- 
weger's investigations Koppen thinks (1891) that he has confirmed 
the existence of such short periods but he did not obtain the same 
values of their duration as those of Unterweger. 

Frank H. Bigelow found (1894) a periodicity in the variations 
of the terrestrial forces as measured in Europe, in correlation 
with the rotation period of the sun. The period was computed to 
be 26.68 days, so that, for example, discernible minima in the ter- 
restrial magnetic forces occurred on the first to second, fifth, ninth, 
fifteenth, twentieth, and twenty-fourth day of each rotation, while 
on the other hand the maxima occurred on the third, seventh, eleventh 
to fourteenth, sixteenth to nineteenth, twenty-second, and twenty- 
sixth days.^ 



^ One detects here what Bigelow seems scarcely to have noticed, indications 
of a fourteen-day period, since from thirteen to fifteen days after each mini- 
mum or maximum a corresponding minimum or maximum appears, which 
therefore corresponds to the opposite side of the sun. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I5I 

This he interprets as follows : What he calls the " polar mag- 
netic radiation " of the snn is unequal over the sun's surface and 
may be divided between meridians of greater and less density. 
This " magnetic radiation " would reach the earth with varying 
intensity according to the meridian of the sun which sends it. This 
should be concentrated in oval regions which surround our magnetic 
and geographical poles up to 60° magnetic polar distance. Compar- 
ing the terrestrial magnetic variations within each solar rotation with 
temperature variations in the United States in the same period of 
28.68 days he finds good agreement. Nevertheless the variation of 
temperature is sometimes in the same direction as the variation of the 
magnetic force, at other times inverted. He gives graphically the 
observed temperature anomalies for each solar rotation and arranges 
these curves into two classes, according as they go generally in the 
same way or the opposite way to the average magnetic curves for 
these periods, and finds about equal numbers of each sort. The two 
mean curves of each of these groups of direct or inverted curves, and 
also the values which obtain when one takes the values of the in- 
verted curves from the values of the direct ones, show a marked 
similarity with the curves of the average magnetic variations within 
the 26.68 day period. Particularly striking is this for the curves 
which Bigelow . found in this way for five stations in Dakota for 
the time interval 1878 to 1893 which includes about 220 solar rota- 
tions. These three curves (for the direct, inverted, and direct 
minus inverted temperature variations) are almost completely con- 
gruent with the magnetic curve and it appears scarcely possible 
to deny that this indicates real dependence. This further indicates 
that the sun sends unequal quantities of energy, during its rotation 
period, and this short interval variation in the received quantity of 
energy produces corresponding short period variations in the condi- 
tion of the atmosphere, at least in the United States. The air tem- 
perature varies in association therewith sometimes in the same 
direction as the energy variations and sometimes the opposite. 

From Bigelow's investigations it appears that the inverted varia- 
tions occur on the whole during half the number of the rotation 
periods of the sun in the course of many years, and that the distri- 
bution of these inverted periods varies accordingly to the sun spot 
period. At the time of sun spot maxima they fall generally in the 
summer months or in the autumn months, but at the time of sun 
spot minima generally in the winter months. Bigelow does not pro- 
pose any general explanation for this relation, but according to 



152 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 70 

the lines on which we interpret the connection of temperature varia- 
tions with variations of solar activity we think that there is a 
natural explanation and we shall later return to it. 

Bigelow sums up the temperature anomalies without regard to 
sign for the 26.68 day period for each year for his series 1878 to 
1893, and obtains values which he calls temperature amplitude and 
which give in a fashion the degree over which the temperature varies 
within this solar rotation period. The curve which exhibits the 
variations found in this way agrees excellently with the curve for 
the magnetic elements in Europe and partly with the curve for the 
sun spots. In this way he shows that increased magnetic activity 
within the solar rotation period is associated with increased tem- 
perature variations and the opposite. 

The mean yearly temperature for thirty meteorological stations 
in the United States varies as Bigelow finds for the period 1878 to 
1893 oppositely with the magnetic elements and oppositely also with 
the sun spots. This he thinks is in agreement with his theory on 
the anti-cyclonic and cyclonic circulations which according to him 
vary directly with what he terms the " solar magnetic radiation." 

Later Bigelow continued his investigations on the dependence 
between the meteorological variations and the solar activity and 
was confirmed in his first conclusion that lowering of the temperature 
in the United States attends an increase of the " solar magnetic 
intensity " and vice versa. This holds not only for the longer periods 
of eleven years, but also for short periods of two and three-fourths 
years which he found in 1898 and of which there are four within 
the eleven-year period. 

He extended his investigations to a great number of stations in 
different parts of the world for the time 1873 to 19CXD and took 
into consideration also the variations in the solar prominences as 
given by Lockyer in his paper 1903. Bigelow finds in the tempera- 
ture variations a more or less distinct period of about three years. 
But the variations within this period behaved differently in dififer- 
parts of the earth. This the Lockyers also found for the air pres- 
sure. Bigelow distinguishes between three types of curves for the 
variations : 

1. The direct type, where the temperature variations go the same 
way as the variations in the number of the prominences. 

2. The indirect type, where the variations in the temperature go 
in opposite directions to those of the prominences. 

3. The indifferent type, when the temperature variations have 
no satisfactory agreement with the variations of the prominences. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 1 53 

The direct type of temperature curves he found within the tropics, 
in South America, AustraHa, and South Africa, also in North Africa, 
southwest Europe (France and Spain), in the most westerly of the 
United States, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean, and in Honolulu 
and west Greenland. 

The indirect type he found in Japan and China, northwest, middle 
and southeast Russia, in middle Europe, on the Faroe Islands, on 
Iceland, east Greenland, and the following- parts of the United 
States : the South Atlantic States, west Gulf States, and the states 
of the Great Lakes. 

The indifferent type he found in the highest parts of India, in mid- 
dle Siberia, southwest Russia, and in the following regions of the 
United States : in the North Atlantic States, on the north and south 
plateau states of the Rocky Mountains. 

It is apparent that these different temperature regions have con- 
siderable similarity with those which Hildebrandsson found, taking 
into account the different action centers. 

In a later treatise (1908) Bigelow compares the variations in the 
solar prominences for the years 1872 to 1905 with the yearly varia- 
tions in the magnetic horizontal intensity in Europe, the air tempera- 
ture, the vapor pressure, and the air pressure in different regions of 
the United States. He finds an eleven-year period in the variations 
of all these elements and a shorter period of about three, or more 
accurately 2.75 years. In the eleven-year period, which is shown 
most strongly in the United States along the Pacific Ocean, as also 
in the tropics, and less strongly easterly of the Rocky Mountains, 
the temperature and vapor pressure vary both in the west and in the 
east oppositely as the prominences and the magnetic force. In the 
short period which he found everywhere prominent, it appears that 
in the western states on the coast of the Pacific Ocean the tempera- 
ture and the vapor pressure varied in the same direction with the 
prominences and the magnetic force, while on the Rocky Mountain 
plateau and eastward to the Atlantic coast the variation was op- 
posite to these. There is, however, some phase displacement in the 
easterly region. 

Bigelow finds the simplest explanation of this inversion of tem- 
perature variations through the horizontal air circulation. A rise 
of temperature in the tropics accompanying increased solar radia- 
tion would produce a horizontal flow of cold air from high latitudes 
and tend to cool the temperate regions by the cold winds. 



154 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

A high pressure zone extends westward from Florida towards 
northern California and Oregon which divides the United States 
into two parts, so that he thinks the Pacific States are associated 
with the tropical system and the influence on the temperature of 
the United States is not directly an action of solar radiation, but 
only indirectly called forth by the heat which is carried by hori- 
zontal air currents. 

We have summarized so far the investigations of Bigelow, be- 
cause they have many points of interest in connection with our 
results, even though we differ from him in some respects. 

In his well-known vv^ork on Climatic Variations since i/oo, 
Bruckner (1900) treats of the secular variations of the tempera- 
ture of the earth and compares them with the variations of air 
pressure and rain fall. He finds a well-marked period of varia- 
tion of these elements of approximately thirty-six years. By a 
collection of observations on the ice condition of rivers, on the date 
of the wine harvest and on the frequency of strong winds for 
several hundred years, he determines this period exactly as 34.8 ± 
0.7 years. The amplitude of the temperature variations within this 
period " is in all parts of the earth approximately of equal magni- 
tude at about 1° C." This is considerably greater than the ampli- 
tude of the eleven-year period according to Koppen. Bruckner 
finds that his secular climatic variation with the period of about 
thirty-five or thirty-six years, has' absolutely no connection with 
the sun spot frequency." 

He concludes "there can be no doubt that the variations of the 
temperature are the primary effects, variations of air pressure and 
rain fall on the other hand secondary." The cause of the observed 
terrestrial temperature variations according to his thought can be 
sought in the oscillation of the heat coming in from the sun. In 
years with stronger solar radiation, land in summer would be warm 
to a greater degree, which would tend to produce relatively lower 
air pressure over the land with respect to that over the ocean. In 
winter it is, however, the reverse : for the land would be strongly 
cooled by the outgoing radiation, while the ocean would retain an 
excess of heat which is piled up during the summer, so that the 
temperature difference between ocean and continent is again ab^ 
normally great, this time in favor of the ocean. Furthermore, the 
air pressure difference is also accentuated : the barometer stands 
too low on the ocean, too high on the land. This intensification of 
the winter anti-cyclone on the land can in its turn influence the 
temperature by favoring the outgoing radiation. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN TPIE NORTH ATLANTIC 1 55 

Briickner actually found that in Siberia and south Russia in 
periods otherwise warm and dry, particularly 1856-65, the winter 
was abnormally cold, the summer abnormally hot. However he 
remarks that south Russia and Siberia are distinguished by a peculiar 
march of temperature. The variations there march partly reversed 
from other regions. He is of the opinion that these irregularities 
" find their explanation by the great cold of their winter." 

Bruckner raises the interesting point that the temperature ampli- 
tude of his thirty-five year period seems to be less in the tropics 
than in higher latitudes, while the amplitude of the eleven-year 
period of Koppen is affected in the opposite direction. 

After Briickner, William Lockyer, in 1901, considering the mag- 
netic epochs, and the variation in the length of the sun spot period 
itself, worked out the period of the frequency of sun spots to be 
about 35.4 years. The time between minimum and maximum 
varies regularly in a cycle of about 35 years. Bigelow (1902) found 
in dift'erent ways a period of about thirty-five years in the variations 
of the sun spots and the magnetic horizontal intensity (see also J. 
Rekstad, 1908, pi. i). Schuster, in 1905, derived a period of sun 
spots of 33.375 years. Besides he finds also shorter periods of 
13.57, 11-125, 8.38, 5.625, 4.81, 3.78 and 2.69 years. 

F. G. Hahn (1877) undertook investigations on the separate 
year seasons of meteorological elements of the several yearly sea- 
sons separately and connected their variations with those of the solar 
spots. He found, as a general rule, that the temperature varies 
oppositely as the sun spots, although this was not equally marked 
in all times of the year. 

By considering the daily maximum temperatures in summer in 
Geneva for five sun spot periods after 1843, MacDowall (1896) 
found that " in sun spot maximum years a greater nuinber as well 
of very hot as of very cold days occurs than in sun spot minimum 
years." He would explain this by the consideration that the sun's 
radiation has greater intensity at sun spot maximum than at mini- 
mum. Thus a greater number of very hot days at maximum should 
be expected, but it may be the cause also of greater evaporation and 
cloud building which may call forth very cold days. MacDowall 
has also given curves for the June temperature in Trieste, Paris, 
Aix la Chappelle, and Bremen for the years 1831 to 1893, and these 
show much correspondence with the inverted sun spot curves, par- 
ticularly after i860, with amplitudes between maxima and minima 
from 1.5° to 2° C. His five-year smoothed August curves for 



156 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

Bremen show well marked agreement with the inverted sun spot 
curve for the five sun spot periods 1830-83, but it appears that the 
temperature in the period after 1883 went partly in the opposite 
direction. His five-year smooth curve for the summer temperature 
(April to September) in Bremen, agrees also very well with the 
inverted sun spot curve for the four periods 1830 to 1870, but less 
well with the two following periods 1870 to 1893. 

It has also been found that the time of the formation of the grapes, 
the time of the vintage, and also the blossoming time of different 
plants in middle Europe and west Europe varies with the number 
of sun spots (so also the return of swallows in France). These 
phenological phenomena point to the fact that in these regions the 
spring months in the years rich in sun spots are warmer than those 
of less sun spots. This has been confirmed also by Flammarion for 
middle France and by Arrhenius (1903, p. 145) for north Sweden. 

By a collection of the summer temperatures in Turin from about 
1752 on, and their comparison with sun spots, Rizzo found (1897) 
that a temperature minimum follows about three years after a sun 
spot minimum, and a temperature maximum about three years after 
the sun spot maximum, with a temperature amplitude of 0.43° C. 

C. Nordmann (1903) investigated the yearly temperatures for 
the interval 1870 to 1900 for thirteen tropical stations divided into 
zones around the earth. He found that in the eleven-year period 
the temperature very distinctly varied oppositely as the number of 
sun spots, as found earlier by Koppen. But his amplitude between 
maxima and minima was somewhat less and averaged 0.57° C. 

By a special form of analysis, Alfred Angot (1903) examined 
the variations in altogether seventeen temperature periods, each 
corresponding with an eleven-year sun spot period and six tropical 
stations. In fifteen of the periods he found that the temperature 
varied oppositely with the sun spot numbers, while for two series 
1857 to 1867 for Bombay and 1875- ^^ fo'" Barbadoes, the variation 
was in the same direction as that of the spots. 

Easton (1905) maintained that in the last three hundred years the 
approach of cold winter gave the best indication of effect of great 
variations in the solar activity on the climate of the whole earth. In 
the temperature zones the sun spot frequency was particularly well 
reflected by the approach of very cold winter (see Hann, 1908, 
p. 358). 

From about a hundred years' observations in Vienna, Hann found 
(1908, p. 357) that the temperature both in winter and summer is 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I57 

highest at sun spot minimum and lowest at sun spot maximum, and 
the amplitude between the two he determined on the average for 
winter to be 0.61 ° C, for summer 0.48° C, while for the year it 
is only 0.25° C. 

Newcomb (1908) investigated by means of a special mathemati- 
cal process temperature series for the years 1871 to 1904 in widely 
separated regions covering the tropics and the lower latitudes of 
the United States, Argentina, West Indies, Mauretius, India, Cey- 
lon, Australia, and the Pacific Ocean. He found the temperature 
maximum occurs 0.33 years before the sun spot minimum and the 
temperature minimum 0.65 years after the sun spot maximum. The 
amplitude between temperature maximum and minimum he deter- 
mined as 0.26° C. The result is similar to that of Koppen only that 
Newcomb's amplitude is considerably smaller. 

Newcomb concluded from this that the observed difference in 
the temperature of the earth indicated a corresponding fluctuation in 
the radiation of the sun of 0.2 per cent on both sides of the mean. 
He found further a somewhat doubtful indication of another varia- 
tion in the temperature of the earth with a period of about six years, 
which could most probably be associated with variations of the radia- 
tion of the sun. This was first noticeable after the year 1870 and 
the average deviation from the mean temperature was less than 
0.1° C. Finally he found, though without decisive proof, that 
" there is a certain suspicion of a tendency in the terrestrial tem- 
perature to fluctuate in a period corresponding to that of the sun's 
synodic rotation. If the fluctuations are real they affect our tem- 
peratures only by a small fraction of one-tenth of a degree." This 
agrees to a certain measure with Bigelow's result (1894), except 
that Newcomb's variations are much smaller. But he treated his 
observational material in a wholly different way and, for example, 
took no account of the consideration which Bigelow advances that 
by the variations in the solar radiation (which Bigelow calls the 
" polar magnetic solar radiation ") variations could be produced in 
the temperature of the United States at certain times in the same 
direction, at other times in the reverse. 

By means of bolometric measurements made in Washington, Lang- 
ley (1904) found it probable that the solar radiation outside our 
atmosphere ("the solar constant") from the end of March, 1903, 
and for the rest of that year was about ten per cent diminished. By 
collection of temperature observations at 89 stations in seven dif- 
ferent regions of the North Temperate Zone in Asia, Europe, North 



158 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

Africa, and in North America, he found that in all of these seven 
regions the temperature nearly simultaneously sank. The tempera- 
ture decrease in Germany amounted to more than 2° C. Neverthe- 
less he found a rise in the temperature toward the end of the year 
that did not correspond with variations in the observed value of the 
solar constant. This he explained by increased tranparency in the 
atmosphere which had been noticed in September of this year. 

Though Langley stated these results with great reserve and cau- 
tion, they seem to indicate that the temperature on the surface of the 
earth varies directly with the solar radiation, a conclusion which, 
however, was strongly shaken by later investigations. 

Abbot and Fowle (1908) collected the anomalies of monthly 
temperature for forty-seven stations in different parts of the earth. 
Since they assumed that the temperature of the earth would vary 
directly with the variations in the received solar radiation, they 
chose stations which were inland as far as possible, where the direct 
solar radiation would make itself most felt without experiencing 
much the equalizing influence of the ocean. 

Their forty-seven stations were ranged in eight regions : North 
America (15), South America (i), middle and east Europe (8), 
North Africa (2), South Africa (2), North Asia (7), South 
Asia (6), Australia (6). The curves for each of these regions ap- 
pear to be very irregular, but the mean for each year for all regions 
and all temperatures shows an eleven-year period that varies op- 
positely to the sun spots. Their curve (1908, pi. XXV-A) shows 
also well-marked three or four divisions of the eleven-year period, 
particularly in the last period, 1889 to 1900. Though they do not 
call attention to this, it seems very similar to the perio'ds of sun spots, 
prominences, and magnetic elements as shown in our figure 95. In 
this publication these authors are inclined to the view that tempera- 
ture variations follow directly variations of the solar radiation re- 
ceived, and consequently that this will be less at sun spot maxi- 
mum, which, however, is a view they later found to be erroneous 
(1913-a). 

In a later work (1913-b) Abbot and Fowle investigated the de- 
pendence between volcanic eruptions and variations in the air tem- 
perature of the earth. They came thereby to the conclusion that the 
solar radiation which reaches us is diminished by the masses of 
volcanic dust, which are thrown out by powerful explosive volcanic 
eruptions and distributed at great heights in the atmosphere. Such 
eruptions are those of Krakatao in August 1883, Mt. Pelee (Mar- 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IX THE NORTH ATLANTIC I59 

tinique) in May, 1902, Santa ]\Iaria (Guatemala) in October 1902, 
Colima (Southern Mexico) February and March 1903, Katmai 
(Alaska) in June, 1912, and many others. The small dust particles 
reflect and scatter the solar radiation. A diminution of the heat 
available to warm the earth makes itself distinctly felt in the pyrheli- 
ometric curve, as measurements they cite tend to show. The 
pyrheliometric curve has well-marked minima in the years 1884-5, 
1890-91, and 1903, corresponding with great volcanic eruptions. By 
combining in a certain way the mean of this curve and the inverted 
sun spot curve together, they produce a curve from the year 1880 
to 1909, which has very great similarity with the curve for the 
anomalies of the maximum temperatures of the United States at 
fifteen stations and also with the curve for the yearly temperature 
of the earth at forty-seven stations. 

Arctowski has studied the climatic and temperature variations in 
different regions of the earth in numerous papers (1908-1915). He 
comes to the conclusion that rythmical variations keep step with the 
variations in the solar activity, which show a well-marked eleven- 
year period, but the variations do not run parallel all over the earth. 
At most places they go oppositely to the sun spots, so that the aver- 
age temperature of the earth is considerably lower (at least 0.5° C.) 
at sun spot maximum than at minimum. In some scattered regions 
the temperature variations go in the same direction as the sun spots, 
but not always regularly. He finds (1909, p. 124) that in a year of 
maximum sun spots like 1893, the pleions as he calls them (that is to 
say, the regions of positive temperature anomalies) are isolated on 
a ground of negative anomalies, while during years of sun spot 
minima like 1900 conversely the antipleions (that is, regions of nega- 
tive temperature anomalies) are the isolated spots. 

The most sharply marked period in most of Arctowski's tempera- 
ture curves, particularly of tropical stations, is not the eleven-year 
period, but a shorter somewhat irregular one whose average length 
is 2.75 years, and which is the same as that found by Bigelow and 
the two Lockyers. Indeed this shorter period variation he finds 
so predominently that he recently (1915, p. 171) has spoken of it 
as certain that the variations in Arequipa (Peru) or in the equa- 
torial type of temperature curves apparently have nothing in com- 
mon with the eleven-year period, though a certain correlation can 
exist. He is of the opinion that the shorter variations are brought 
forth by corresponding shorter variations in the solar activity. Vol- 
canic dust, Arctowski believes himself to have shown (1915) has 



l6o SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

no particular influence to produce great variations in the tempera- 
ture of the earth except in quite exceptional cases like the Krakatao 
outbreak. 

In the tropics, he believes, the temperature variations are de- 
veloped most regularly, merely under the influence of variations in 
the solar activity without the disturbing influence of atmospheric 
circulation. Indeed, by a comparison of temperature curves for 
Arequipa, Peru, with the curve of the observed value for the " solar 
constant " according to measures in Washington, 1903 to 1907, he 
believes that he has shown a correlation between variations in the 
monthly mean temperature and the observed short period variations 
of the " solar constant" (1912, p. 603). 

By comparing the monthly mean of the fluctuating values of the 
" solar constant " found on Mt. Wilson in the years 1905 and 1906 
with the monthly mean temperatures for Arequipa for the same 
months, Arctowski found it probable that an anomaly of 1° F. of 
the monthly temperature for Arequipa corresponds to an anomaly of 
about 0.015 calo'rie for the " solar constant." The extreme values 
of the " solar constant," which were found on Mt. Wilson in these 
measurements were 1.93 and 2.14 calories per square centimeter per 
minute outside the earth's atmosphere."^ 

Plainly misled by Abbot and Fowle, who in their work in the year 
1907 showed it probable that the temperature variations of the earth 
march directly with variations in the solar radiation, Arctowski came 
to the conclusion that the temperature of the earth, particularly in 
the tropics, varies directly as the solar radiation. In their later work 
(1913-a) Abbot and Fowle have, however, shown that they were 
probably in error in this view and that the " solar constant " is smaller 
at sun spot minimum than at sun spot maximum, therefore 
Arctowski's view would be untenable. In his latest paper (191 5) 
he appears like Huntington to attribute a greater influence to the 
atmospheric circulation. Particularly interesting are Arctowski's 
studies of his pleions and antipleions (1909, 1910, and 1914), which 
he finds may be perpetuated over several years with the centers of 
the pleions traveling from year to year to and fro in irregular curves. 

We have shown (1909, p. 214) that the winter temperature from 
1st of November to 30th of April in Norway, at Ona Lighthouse for 
the years 1874 to 1907 changes in the same way as the sun spots so 



^In a late publication of Abbot, Fowle, and Aldrich (1913-a) these numeri- 
cal values are diminished by 5 per cent owing to improvements in pyrhelio- 
metry. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC l6l 

that high winter temperatures fall coincidently with sun spot 
maximum. 

In his valuable work on the height of the water in the great 
Swedish lakes, Dr. Axel Wallen (1910 to 1913) has also studied the 
variations of the air temperature at Stockholm since the middle of 
the eighteenth century. He finds several short periods of one, two, 
and four weeks,^ and longer periods of twelve, and twenty-five or 
twenty-six months, and then of eleven years and thirty-three years, 
and an extremely long period of more than one hundred and ten 
years. The eleven-year period is double, with two maxima and two 
minima. The two minima are about equally intense, the principal 
maximum considerably stronger than the second maximum. This 
distribution is, however, very irregular, comes out only in the means 
of a long series of years, and is most clearly indicated by the winter 
temperature. It is not improbable that the period of thirty-three 
years is divisible in a similar manner. 

The periods of a few years and of eleven years in temperature 
variations were also found by Wallen in a series of stations in 
North Europe as well as in Upsala and Stockholm. The maxima 
and minima correspond completely at the different stations and 
appear to coincide at times. Furthermore he found that the winter 
temperatures are more strongly influenced than those of other sea- 
sons of the year in these variations. 

Dr. Oscar V. Johansson employing smoothed five year means 
found that the temperature, the time of harvest, and the breaking 
up of ice in rivers in Finland apparently are somewhat more 
favorable at and somewhat after sun spot maximum than at sun 
spot minimum. Later (1912) by three year means of air tem- 
perature at Helsingfors he investigated whether the sun spot period 
is there doubled as found by Wallen (1910) for Sweden. Johans- 
son's investigations showed rather plainly a double period. The two 
minima fall approximately with the sun spot extreme, and the two 
maxima fall approximately three or four years later. The two 
periods are about of equal intensity, only generally the curves at and 
after sun spot minimum are somewhat lower than those at and after 
the sun spot maximum. The complete amplitude is in summer only 
half that which it is in winter and for the year 1.4° C, about the 



^ Wallen thinks that these short periods depend upon the motion of the 
moon in a similar way that Otto Pettersson attributed to the moon certain 
oceanographic phenomena. He does not appear to have considered that his 
short periods may be associated with the synodic rotation of the sun. 



l62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

same as found by Wallen for Karlstad-V'anersborg. Variations of 
temperature in Helsing-fors were found in winter with periods of 
3.0 years and in summer with ^.y and for the year 2.9 years. Ac- 
cording to Johansson it is very clear " that this short period variation, 
particularly for the winter, depends on the water temperature of the 
northern ocean (see also the results of Pettersson and Meinardus)." 
This conclusion must be understood in this way, that the air tempera- 
ture in Helsingfors and the water temperature at the Norwegian 
lighthouses (not in the North Sea) show the same variation, so that 
the variations in temperature not only for Norway and Sweden, 
but also for Finland or parts of it are found in common. 

In his paper on volcanic dust and climatic variations, Humphreys 
(1913) discusses yearly mean temperatures for the period 1872 to 
1912, for seventeen stations in the United States, seven stations in 
Europe and one station in India. He has chosen stations which 
have considerable height above the sea. Most of them lie between 
2,000 and 10,000 ft. elevation. The variations in these mean tem- 
peratures he has, like Abbot and Fowle (1913), compared with the 
variations in the number of sun spots, the variations in the measured 
solar radiation at the earth's surface as observed by the pyrhelio- 
meter, and also with the volcanic eruptions on the earth. He finds 
excellent agreement, and when he continues the combined curve for 
sun spots and pyrheliometric values at th^ earth's, surface of Abbot 
and Fowle to the year 19 13, he obtains a yet more convincing im- 
pression of agreement between this curve and the curve for the 
terrestrial temperature. He traces the curve of terrestrial tempera- 
ture backwards to 1750 and compares it with the inverted sun spot 
curve and also with the recorded volcanic eruptions. While the two 
curves for temperature and sun spots show many dissimilarities, 
there appears to be a close correspondence between the years of 
low temperatures such as 1767, 1785, 1813 to 1816 and others, and 
the recorded violent volcanic eruptions. Humphreys comes there- 
fore to the same conclusion as Abbot and Fowle, namely, that the 
variations in the temperature at the earth's surface are partially 
dependent on variations of solar activity which have the eleven- 
year or sun spot period and partly on the volcanic dust in the atmos- 
phere of the earth. In consequence of the small diameter of the 
particles of the volcanic dust, it would have the tendency to diffusely 
reflect rays of short wave length like visible solar rays in a high 
degree, but rays of great wave length, such as those emitted by the 
earth's surface, would be freely transmitted. Hence the incoming 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 163 

radiation toward the earth's surface would be 30 times as much 
diminished as the outgoing radiation from the earth. In Hum- 
phrey's opinion the eleven-year variations may be produced because 
the sunlight according' to his view has less violet and ultra-violet 
rays at sun spot maximum than at minimum, on account of the 
presence in the solar corona at maximum of the maximum number 
of particles which reflect and scatter the light. Since the ultra- 
violet rays form ozone, conditions will be more favorable to its 
formation in the isothermal layer of our atmosphere above 11 
kilometers altitude during- sun spot minimum. But since the ozone 
has the peculiarity of transmitting the visible heat rays relatively 
freely but of hindering the escape of the long wave length rays 
emitted by the earth, the increased formation of ozone will be ac- 
companied by a rise of temperature at the earth's surface because 
the outgoing radiation of the earth is diminished. We shall later 
return to the consideration of Humphrey's theories. 

A valuable article was published by Dr. Johannes Mielke (1913) 
in which he discussed the yearly temperatures from 1869 to 1910, 
for not less than 487 different stations distributed over the whole 
earth. He has divided, these stations into 25 regions, the same which 
Koppen had used before, and thereby has found means to determine 
the most probable expressions for the temperature of the different 
parts of the earth's surface during the investigated period. These 
temperature series show on the whole an unmistakable agreement 
with the variations in the number of sun spots, but this agreement 
is most marked for the tropics. As the average amplitude between 
the warmest years at sun spot minimum and the coldest years, at 
sun spot maximum, he finds for the tropics in the years 1820 to 
1854: 0.65° C. ; in the years 1870 to 1910 : 0.40° C. Outside the 
tropics in the years 1820 to 1854: 0.51° C. : and the years 1870 to 
1910: 0.35° C. 

In the following year (1914) Koppen published a new investiga- 
tion on the temperature of the earth, the sun spots, and the vol- 
canic eruptions which was based principally on the two above men- 
tioned articles of jMielke and Humphreys. He employed the values 
for the temperature series used by Mielke in order to construct 
curves which bring out clearly the agreement between the variations 
of the temperature of the earth's atmosphere and the sun spots (see 
fig. 65 below). The best agreement is found as already stated in 
the tropical variations. Koppen discussed Humphrey's theory that 
the temperature variations depend in part upon the volcanic erup- 



164 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

tions in the earth's atmosphere. We shall later return to Koppen's 
paper. 

As we were on the point of finishing this work, Krogness published 
(1917) in the Journal " Naturen " March, 1917, an interesting article 
on the dependence between magnetic storms and meteorological 
variations. The article is in part the result of highly valuable ob- 
servations which Krogness made at the Haldde Observatory in Fin- 
mark. He urges that the variations in the earth's magnetism are at 
least as good a measure of the variations of the solar activity as the 
relative sun spot numbers which have been used principally hitherto. 
By employing the observations of the Christiania Observatory on 
the daily variations of the magnetic declination as a measure of the 
magnetic storminess, he finds that the eleven-year variations in this 
correspond directly to an eleven-year variation in the surface tem- 
perature at Ona Lighthouse on the Norwegian west coast. The cor- 
relation occurs in this way : that a maximum of temperature occurs 
at the time of maximum magnetic storminess and therefore at the 
time of sun spot maximum (compare Helland-Hansen and Nansen, 
1909, fig. 73). He has investigated the relation between the varia- 
tions in the magnetic storminess and the air temperature at different 
stations in Norway at different seasons of the year, both in the north 
(Alten and Andenes) and further south (Christiansund and Do- 
maas). He finds that in March- April there is a good agreement in 
the variations of the magnetic storminess and the temperature varia- 
tions not only in the stations which he investigated but also on the 
whole in all Norway (22 meteorological stations), so that the maxi- 
mum magnetic storminess occurs a little before the maximum of air 
temperature. But different relations hold for other seasons of the 
year. In January, for example, the temperature variations at the 
stations he employed as well as in all Norway go in opposite direction 
to the variations of the magnetic storminess. Indications of the same 
kind are found in the autumn in the months September and October 
particularly in northern Norway. Considering the whole year as a 
unit, there appears to be a certain indication of agreement between 
temperature variations and variations in the magnetic storminess, 
but such that the maximum of temperature falls on the average a 
couple of years after the maximum of magnetic storminess. Krog- 
ness appears to think that the variations in the solar radiation which 
reaches the earth has a direct influence on the air temperature of the 
earth's surface at the different stations, and that this in combination 
with variations in the air circulation and outgoing radiation is the 
cause of the observed agreement which he finds between temperature 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTEL ATLANTIC 165 

variations and the variations of magnetic storminess. Krogness goes 
on the assumption that the temperature of the sea at sun spot maxi- 
mum is highest in consequence of the greater intensity of solar radia- 
tion, an assumption which for the open sea does not agree in general 
with our results. 

In a later part of his article (" Naturen " for April, 191 7) Krog- 
ness shows on the basis of the observations Heldde (1912-1915) 
a period of approximately 27.3 days and one of half that length, 
14 days, in the magnetic storminess which associates itself with the 
synodic rotation of the sun. He finds also two very interesting 
periods of about eight months and of two years in the magnetic 
storminess in Christiania since 1843. These fall in with the period 
of about 236 days of the heliocentric conjunction of "the planets 
Venus and Jupiter in combination with the yearly period of variation 
in declination in Christiania.'' He publishes two curves : For the air 
temperature in all Norway and for the surface temperature at Ona 
Lighthouse. These two curves show this period of two years, but 
somewhat irregularly, so that it occasionally has a length of nearly 
three years, as in the interval 1883 to 1889, and occasionally is 
shorter than two years. The temperature curves vary in a majority 
of cases directly, but part of the time oppositely with the curve of 
magnetic storminess in Christiania. The eight monthly period is 
difficult to perceive in these curves.^ 



^ Two periods of eight and twelve months are commensurate with one of 
twenty-four months and the intensified action can thus be caused which has a 
two years' period. 

^ In " Ann. der Hydr." for May, 1917, there appears a treatise " On the Rela- 
tion of Temperature to Sun Spot Periods " by Otto Meissner. It is recalled 
there that the same author had already (Astr. Nachrichten Bd. 189, p. 371-374) 
shown that for Berlin the sun spot maximum corresponds with a temperature 
minimum and a precipitation maximum, while three years after the opposite 
extremes of phase succeed, and in the minimum between normal conditions 
prevail. Meissner investigates in the present article the temperature varia- 
tions in Berlin for each month of the year during seven and one-half sun 
spot cycles from 1822 to 1907, and finds the following relation with the sun spot 
periods. In the three winter months and the three summer months there is a 
simple or double periodicity, most strongly marked in January and July 
though with greatly displaced phases. In spring and autumn such periodicity 
is not to be recognized. In January and February there is a principal minimum 
the year after the sun spot maximum while, for example, in July there is a 
minimum three years after the sun spot maximum and in the same year as the 
temperature maximum in January. July shows a principal minimum at the 
time of sun spot minimum, etc. The yearly mean shows a clearly double 
periodicity with a principal minimum at the time of sun spot maximum or a 
year later and a secondary minimum at the time of sun spot minimum. 



l66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. "JO 

VARIATIONS IN AIR PRESSURE AND IN SOLAR ACTIVITY 

Variations of other meteorological elements have been connected 
with the variations of sun spots by various authors with greater or 
less evidences of agreement. 

That the variations in air pressure are associated with unknown 
variations in the solar activity has long ago been suggested. Charles 
Chambers (1857) called attention to variations in the yearly barome- 
tric pressure in Bombay which show a periodicity which corresponds 
approximately with the sun spot period. A few years afterwards 
Frederick Chambers (1878) showed that the observed air pressure 
in Bombay for the winter and the summer months and for both 
together give lower values when the sun spots are more intensely 
developed and vice versa. But the curve for the air pressure lags 
somewhat behind the curve of sun spots, particularly in the years of 
the maximum of sun spots. The air pressure curve for the winter 
was more regular than the air pressure curve for the summer. From 
these observations Chambers drew the partly erroneous conclusion 
that since the variations of air pressure depend upon the warming 
of the earth's surface, the sun must be warmest and consequently 
the temperature of the earth must be highest at the maximum of 
sun spots, when a minimum of air pressure prevails. 

In the same year, 1878, John Allen Broun supported Chambers' 
work by comparing the observations at Singapore, Trevandrum, 
Madras and Bombay and showed that the years with the highest 
and lowest mean air pressure were probably in common for all 
India. From this he drew the conclusion that in this whole region 
the air pressure varies oppositely zvith the sun spots in the same 
way that it does for Bombay. At the end of the same year, 1878, 
S. A. Hill confirmed this conclusion by similar data from Calcutta. 

Hill investigated also (1879) the 5^early amplitude for the varia- 
tions of the air pressure in Calcutta from 1840 to 1878, as well as 
in Roorkee, from 1864 to 1878, and found that, like the yearly ampli- 
tude of temperature in northwestern India they changed oppositely 
with the sun spots, so that the maximum pressure amplitude was 
approximately exactly coincident with the sun spot minimum and 
vice versa. He was inclined to conclude from this that the " Solar 
radiation " is in general more intense at the minimum of sun spot." 

In May, 1879, E. D. Archibald called attention to the remarkable 
condition which had been brought to his notice by S. A. Hill that in 
St. Petersburg the mean yearly air pressure varies in the same direc- 
tion as the sun spots. It is highest at sun spot maximum and lowest 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 167 

at minimum, but the period of air pressure variation lags behind the 
sun spot period. 

Blanford (1879, 1880) extended his investigations over a larger 
region including observations at Batavia, Singapore, Colombo and 
several Indian stations and also Mauritius. He showed that in the 
whole Indo-Malayan region the air pressure varies oppositely with 
the sun spots. These variations were most clearly and regularly 
developed at island stations near the equator. But at the same time 
he obtained the highly interesting relation that as Hill and Archi- 
bald had found fo'r St. Petersburg, namely, the air pressure there 
varied directly with the sun spots, also that for stations further east 
in Russia and Siberia as Ekaterinburg and Barnaul the same condi- 
tion prevailed. This was also found less marked for the stations 
Bogoloves and Slatoust in the Urals. Furthermore he showed that 
these variations going directly with the sun spots prevailed only for 
the air pressure in winter in St. Petersburg, Ekaterinburg, and 
Barnaul, while his curves for the summer had a tendency to go in 
the opposite direction to the winter curves. He did not notice that 
the amplitude of his winter curves decreased in magnitude from St. 
Petersburg eastwards, nor did he note the extremely interesting 
thing that his summer curves for Ekaterinburg and Barnaul in 
general have the same character as both the summer curves and the 
yearly curves of the air pressure at the Indian stations. The air pres- 
sure in summer in the Siberian stations varies almost oppositely 
with the sun spots. 

From this we see that between Russia and Siberia on the one hand 
and the Indo-Malayan region, perhaps also including the Chinese 
region, on the other hand, there is in winter an opposite and periodic 
oscillation of the air pressure in such a manner that while in winter 
in west Siberia and Russia maximum pressures prevail at sun spot 
maximum, minimum prevails in the Indo-Malayan region and vice 
versa at sun spot minimum. As he expresses it in a later publica- 
tion (1891, p. 586) " in years of maximum sun spots a larger portion 
of the tropical atmosphere is transferred to high latitudes in the 
winter hemisphere, which again implies a disturbance of atmos- 
pheric equilibrium in that epoch between the tropics and the circum- 
polar zone and therefore an increased intensity of the disturbing 
agent." In the tropical stations he found a slight difference between 
the variations in air pressure in summer and winter. It behaved in 
both seasons of the year oppositely to the sun spots. 

Blanford was of the opinion that the observed variations in air 
pressure must have their seat in the higher regions of the atmos- 



l68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

phere, probably in the cloud-building layers. He draws this con- 
clusion because the air pressure anomalies for the time of high pres- 
sure between May, 1876, and August, 1878, was considerably greater 
in the Himalayas at 6,900 feet than in the interior plains of Bengal. 
He furthermore draws the same conclusion from the fact brought out 
by Gautier and Koppen that the temperature of the atmosphere at 
the earth's surface varies in such a manner that it stands in opposite 
relation to the air pressure variation. On the one hand high tem- 
perature with high air pressure prevails at sun spot minimum, while 
at sun spot maximum low temperature and low air pressures prevail. 
He conceived it probable that the most important factor producing 
the observed diminution of air pressure at sun spot maximum is the 
increase of evaporation and the uprising of water vapor, which may 
produce effects of three kinds : First, that the water vapor displaces 
air whose density is three-eighths times greater; second, because 
the heat of condensation is set free in the higher layers ; and third, 
because of the upward rising currents which may diminish the pres- 
sure of the atmosphere in a purely dynamical way. The first and 
second of these processes would not directly diminish the air pres- 
sure, but only the density of the air layer and thereby only increase 
its volume, but in this way a part of the upper atmosphere must be 
displaced and it would necessarily flow over into regions where the 
water vapor production is at a minimum and therefore into the 
polar regions and the colder parts of the temperature zone. This 
would occur particularly where a cold and dry continental surface 
tends to produce a strong outgoing radiation under a winter sky. 
These conditions are found exactly in the northern plains in Euro- 
pean Russia and in west Siberia. 

In the same year, 1880, Frederick Chambers investigated with the 
aid of all available data the variations of the air pressure for the 
period of years 1843 to 1879 in the tropical stations St. Helena, 
Mauritius, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Batavia, and Zikawai, and 
found an excellent agreement in the curves compared as regards 
the march of the air pressure in these different stations. This was 
of such a nature that variations in the westerly stations occurred 
several months earlier than in the stations further east. Chambers 
therefore assumed the existence of large atmospheric waves which 
slowly and with varying velocity traversed the earth from west to 
east like the cyclones in the ektropic regions. 

He compared these air pressure curves for the different stations 
with the inverted sun spot curve and showed an excellent agree- 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 169 

ment, but the times of maximum and minimum came after the cor- 
responding times of minimum and maximum of sun spots. The 
time interval varies from about six months to about two and a half 
years. In the mean it v^as about one year eight months. He there- 
fore concluded that several months after variations in the spotted 
surface of the sun there follow corresponding abnormal air pressure 
variations. He connected also the famines of India with these air 
pressure variations by showing that times of famine follow his 
atmospheric waves of high pressure. 

By his above mentioned spectroscopic investigations of sun spots 
beginning with 1870, Sir Norman Lockyer in the year 1886 regarded 
it fairly certain that the sun is warmest at sun spot maximum. At 
sun spot minimum the widened lines in the sun spot spectrum cor- 
responded generally with the lines of iron and some other known 
metals, but at maximum the most widened lines were the so-called 
unknowns, which had not been observed in the spectrum of ter- 
restrial elements. He therefore provisionally assumed that the sun 
was not only warmer at sun spot maximum, but warm enough to 
dissociate the iron vapor. 

In the year 1900, Sir Norman Lockyer and William Lockyer pub- 
lished a discussion of the observations of the most widened spectro- 
scopic lines for a period of more than twenty years. They showed 
that the two kinds of spectroscopic lines experienced regular and 
opposite periodic variations at least up to the year 1894 or 1895. 
These variations were such that when expressed graphically in 
curves the curve for the iron lines tended upwards when the curve 
for the unknown lines tended downwards, and vice versa. This 
relation continued unchanged up to the year 1895. At certain inter- 
vals the two curves must therefore cross one another and this should 
occur according to the above mentioned hypothesis at the time when 
the temperature of the sun had a mean value. These crossing 
points lay as they found almost exactly in the mean between maxi- 
mum and minimum of sun spots, that is to say, midway between 
those times when one should assume that the sun was warmer or 
colder than the mean. 

In discussion of the variations of the solar prominences (1902) 
they found that the prominences on the whole varied in the same 
way as the sun spots, but that within the eleven-year sun spot period 
there occur three well marked shorter periods of about three and a 
half or 3.7 years in the variations of the prominences. These three 
periods occur so that while the maximum of the middle period 



170 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

coincides with the maximum of sun spots, the maxima for the two 
other periods occur at the crossing points of the two kinds of 
spectrum Hues. 

In a discussion of this prominence curve along with the curves 
of air pressure variations in India they found an excellent agree- 
ment at least for the period of time 1877 to 1890, in so far that the 
air pressure curves showed the same periods of about 3.7 years. 
This was so distinctly marked that it rather overshadowed the 
eleven-year period, associated with the sun spot curves. 

In order to see if this remarkable agreement was confined to the 
region of India they extended their investigations to other parts 
of the earth and investigated the air pressure variations in Cordoba, 
Argentina. They found also here a remarkable agreement, but with 
the important difiference that the curves were inverted. Years with 
high air pressure in India corresponded with years of low air pres- 
sure in Cordoba. This held particularly for the time April to Sep- 
tember, that is, the summer of the northern hemisphere and the 
winter of the southern hemisphere, and also for the whole year. On 
the other hand it was less closely followed for the summer of the 
southern hemisphere, that is, from October to March. It appears 
natural that these coincident variations should be due to a common 
cause which, while it tended to raise the mean barometric pressure 
of the low pressure months in the Indian region, tended at the same 
time to depress the mean value for the high pressure months at 
Cordoba. Further investigations show also that a sihiilar coinci- 
dence of time in the air pressure variations at different stations in 
Europe occurs with a similar period of a few years. 

The common cause for these air pressure variations must probably 
be outside of the earth, and it is easy to conclude that it may be 
associated with the coincident outbreak of prominences which also is 
associated with variations in the latitude of the sun spots on the 
sun's surface. All of these phenomena occur in the same period of 
about three and one-half years. The Lockyers think it must be 
assumed that the varying intensity in the solar activity in the course 
of the eleven-year sun spot periods has a direct influence on the air 
pressure and on the circulation of the atmosphere and in this way 
produces meteorological effects over the whole earth. 

They found furthermore that these variations with a period of a 
few (3 to 4) years were not the only operative ones, but that the 
eleven-year and the thirty-five-year periods clearly influenced these 
shorter variations. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTII ATLANTIC I/I 

As above indicated, there occurred in 1894 or 1895 a remarkable 
break in the regularity of the curves of the two kinds of spectro- 
scopic lines for sun spots and at the same time there occurred ac- 
cording to the meteorological publications of India irregularities in 
the precipitation there. Besides it is to be remarked, although not 
called attention to by the Lockyers, that for the years after 1890 both 
the summer and the winter curves of air pressure in Bombay run 
in opposite direction to the variations in the prominences, while the 
curve for April to September for Cordoba runs in the same direction 
as the variations of the prominences for these years. That is to 
say, the curves for the two stations from this time are relatively 
inverted.^ 

Later (1904-1908) Sir Norman and William Lockyer have ex- 
tended their investigations to other regions of the earth and found 
that the two opposite types of air pressure variations have very v^ide 
extensions. The region in which the air pressure varies directly 
with the prominences extends over the whole Indian . Ocean, Aus- 
tralia, South Africa, northwards over Arabia, Persia, North Africa, 
South Europe to Iceland and Greenland, and from there further 
over the region of Northern Canada to Alaska, while in South 
America, Western North Africa, the greater part of North Amer- 
ica and the Pacific Ocean, as well as in east Asia,' Siberia, and the 
most northerly part of Russia and of Scandinavia the air pressure 
variations are generally inverted with respect to the prominences. 
In one part of this region, as for example in southwest and middle 
Europe, most eas.terly Canada and other places, the variations run 
partly in one and partly in the other direction and the curves which 
express the variations in these regions have therefore a mixed type. 
As we shall see, this division of the earth into different regions 
where the variations have opposing directions agrees in its princi- 
pal feature with Hildebrandsson's division of the earth's surface 
into different action centers where the variations occur inverted. , 

There appears to be a conflict between this result of the two 
Lockyers, that in India the air pressure in their three years' period 
varies directly with the prominences and, for example, in Siberia 
oppositely, and the proof which Chambers, Broun, Hill, Archibald, 
Blanford and others have furnished that in the eleven-year sun 
spot period the pressure in India varies in the opposite direction to 



^ It is, however, worth noting that the air pressure curves for Bombay in this 
time had in part a better direct agreement with the curves for the variations 
of the heliographic latitudes of sun spots. , 



172 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

the sun spots, while in Russia and Siberia it varies directly with 
them. 

The two Lockyers call attention to the interesting circumstance 
that at separate stations it often occurs that w^hile the variations 
over a long period of time follow one of the two types as at Bom- 
bay or Cordoba for instance, they may suddenly revert for another 
series of years to the other type, so that, for example, the air pres- 
sure might at first vary directly as the prominences and suddenly 
go over to the reversed type variation and after a lapse of some 
time again go back to the original type. This is explained by the 
Lockyers in this manner, that if a region with regular air pressure 
variations of one or the other type experiences in a series of years 
uncommonly great variations, the very high or very low air pressure 
prevailing over this region must be distributed to the surrounding 
regions of the earth and the boundary of the type of variations in 
consequence must be displaced so that stations which lie near the 
boundary of such a type of variation can on account of the extra- 
ordinarily great fluctuations in neighboring regions be constrained 
to change from one type to the other. 

These important discoveries of the two Lockyers agree as, we shall 
see, in part with the investigations of Hildebrandsson. In the same 
directio'n points the already mentioned observation of Hann (1904), 
that in eighty per cent of the cases great positive air pressure 
anomalies in Iceland corresponded with negative air pressure 
anomalies over the Azores and that the greatest negative air pressure 
anomalies over Iceland in eighty-seven per cent of the cases coin- 
cided with positive air pressure anomalies over the Azores. This 
result which was reached from the observations of the years 1846 
to 1900 strengthens the validity of the earlier conclusion which 
Hildebrandsson had drawn from the observational period 1874 to 
1884 and agrees with the observations of the two Lockyers, accord- 
ing to whom the Azores belong to the region where the air pressure 
variations go in opposite direction to the prominences, while Ice- 
land belongs to that region where the variations go directly with 
the prominences. 

The result at which Prof. Bigelow arrived by his investigations 
agrees also in general with the observations of the two Lockyers, 
In his investigation of the year 1898, Bigelow found an agreement 
between the variations of air pressure in the United States and 
the variations in the sun spots and also in those of the magnetic 
force in Europe, He found that in the northwesterly part of the 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 1 73 

United States the air pressure varied directly and the temperature 
oppositely as the sun spots and the magnetic forces. He also noted 
the shorter variations of a few years' period which he estimated 
at two and three-fourths years, and from this he concluded that 
there are four such periods in the eleven-year sun spot cycle. This 
is, as a comparison of the Bigelow curves with those of the two 
Lockyers shows, exactly the same short period that the Lockyers 
observed and whose duration they assigned at three and a half or 
3.7 years. This well-marked period was also clearly shown in 
Bigelow's curve of 1894. The differences in the determination of 
its length are dependent upon the fact that the two Lockyers assume 
that there are three such periods in the eleven-year sun spot period. 
This was indeed the case in the time interval 1880 to 1890, which 
was the one principally investigated by them. Bigelow found also 
(1902, 1903) the same opposing relation which the two Lockyers 
had found between the air pressure variations in the different parts 
of the earth. He divided these variations into three kinds : First, 
those where the variation goes directly with the prominences ; second, 
where it goes opposed to the prominences ; and third, those in which 
now one and now the other type prevails and which he spoke of as 
the indifferent type. The charts which he gives illustrating the dis- 
tribution of these different types of air pressure variations agree in 
general with the charts which the two Lockyers published in the fol- 
lowing years. 

Later (1908) Bigelow found that while the air pressure varia- 
tions for the. eleven-year period over the whole United States go 
in opposite direction to the sun spots and the prominences, it is 
otherwise with the short period of about three years, for in this 
they have the same direction as the prominences in the western 
United States and the Pacific Ocean, while they go in the opposite 
direction to the prominences in the states east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. As already remarked, Bigelow is of the impression that 
the variations in the air pressure over the earth and particularly in 
the United States depend in great part on variations in what 
he calls " magnetic radiation " of the sun. This radiation influences 
directly, he thinks, the air pressure and the atmospheric circula- 
tion and thereby indirectly affects the temperature. 

Dr. Richter (1902) compared five yearly smoothed curves of 
air pressure at different stations in Europe with curves for the sun 
spots, the Northern Lights, and the yearly variations magnetic 
declination for a series of years from about 1830 to about 1880. 



174 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

These smoothed curves must therefore, it is to be expected, give 
best the longer periods of eleven years and upwards. For these 
he finds a well marked agreement between the curves for sun spots, 
etc., and those for air pressure at St. Petersburg, but less marked 
for the curves for other stations in more southerly latitudes in 
Europe. The air pressure variatio'ns in St. Petersburg in the eleven- 
year period go in the same way as the variations in sun spots, mag- 
netic variations and Northern Lights and there is shown a tendency 
to the same direct agreement at several of the other stations. 

Dr. Brask in Batavia (1910) has determined the variations in air 
pressure and temperature in Batavia for the period 1866 to 1909 
and finds in both a complete agreement, with a well-marked period 
of about three and one-half years. The curves for pressure and 
temperature are completely similar. Variations in the temperature 
occur about six months after the corresponding variations in the 
air pressure. The curve for the air pressure difference between 
Batavia and Fort Darwin is similar to the air pressure curve for 
Batavia, only that it runs oppositely. The short period is, as he 
himself notes, the same which the two Lockyers have found, but 
from his curves it appears that the period is best defined as having 
a length of about three years only. 

VARIATIONS IN WIND AND SUN SPOTS 

As we have seen that the air pressure varies with the solar 
activity, it should be expected that the winds also vary thus. In 
the year 1872, Meldrum, the Director of the Observatory at 
Mauritius, noted that the cyclones in the Indian Ocean between the 
equator and 25° south latitude varied in number and intensity with 
the sun spots. He found that in three sun spots periods between 
1847 ^^d 1 87 1 on the average seventeen cyclones in three years 
occurred in the neighborhood of the sun spot maximum, while near 
sun spot minimum in the same number of years only half as many 
cyclones occurred, or from eight to nine. 

Shortly after this Poey showed that the cyclones in the Antilles 
have a similar periodicity. For the period of time from 1750 to 
1873 he found that the maximum of cyclones occurred about one 
year after the maximum of sun spots, while the minimum of cyclones 
occurred about one year before the minimum of sun spots. The 
most decisive proof of the correctness of Meldrum's observations 
is furnished by the fact that the list of shipping losses of the marine 
insurance companies shows a similar variation to his assumed 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I75 

variation in the probable number of cyclones, at least for losses in 
the low latitudes of the ocean. 

Bigelow claimed (1894) that the storm tracks (that is to say, the 
tracts of high and low pressure) in the United States vary in their 
course with the sun spots in this way that the northerly storm track 
or northerly region of storms {" the North Low and the South High 
belts ") in the northern states and in southwest Canada were more 
northerly at maximum of sun spots and more southerly at sun spot 
minimum, while the southerly storm track (" the North High and 
the South Low belts") varied oppositely (1894, p. 445). He 
found besides that the variations in these tracks not only showed 
the eleven-year sun spot period, but also showed the shorter period 
of approximately three years like the variations of the promi- 
nences. He believed himself also to have shown that within the 
sun's rotation period of 26.68 days coincidently agreeing variations 
occur in the terrestrial magnetic forces and in the prevalence of 
West Indian cyclones. But these short variations and the coincident 
agreement cannot be regarded as well substantiated without further 
investigations (see also Prof. Hazen's criticism 1894). 

MacDowall has shown that in Greenwich in the spring, days with 
south wind are more frequent in years of prevalent sun spots 
than in years of few sun spots. It has also been found that in the 
interval 1850 to 1894, in the first three months of the year the num- 
ber of days with north winds varies in the opposite sense to the 
number of sun spots. The number of days of frost in the first 
three months of the year in the neighborhood of London also varies 
in the same sense, that is to say, there are less frosty days and fewer 
days of north wind when there are many sun spots and vice versa. 

Prof. Kullmer (1914, and see also Huntington, 1914, p. 253) has 
found that in a zone through the northerly United States and 
southern Canada, where the storms are most numerous on the 
average, the number of storms varies in almost direct agreement 
with the number of sun spots, in the same manner as has been 
shown for the tropical hurricanes. There are other regions, how- 
ever, where the opposite is true. It appears as though the storms 
when there are few sun spots move in more widely scattered 
courses. If on the other hand the sun spots are more numerous 
the storms have a tendency to be concentrated along a few well 
marked paths, so that the storminess is confined to more or less 
definite regions within which it has a tendency to be concentrated. 



176 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

Prof. Kullmer found also that in the interval from 1878 to 1887, 
and in the years 1899 to 1 908, the storm course in the United States 
was displaced towards the south and west. He draws attention 
also (1914, p. 205) to the coincident displacement of the isogonals 
in the same way and that this indicates that the magnetic north 
pole has been displaced. He considers as probable the hypothesis, 
that the storm course is centered about the magnetic pole and moves 
with it. 

VARIATIONS IN PRECIPITATION AND SUN SPOTS 

The relation between the variations in the precipitation and the 
sun spots has led to many investigations since Meldrum in the 
year 1872 showed for several tropical stations that the rainfall 
varies directly as the sun spots so that a maximum of rainfall occurs 
at the maximum of sun spots and vice versa. Sir Norman Lockyer 
showed this also for several stations in Ceylon and in India. Inves- 
tigations of Symons and Jelinek indicated the same conclusion, that 
more rain falls at sun spot maximum than at sun spot minimum, 
but it appeared that the periodicity is most marked and regular m 
the tropical regions. Hahn pointed out that in the period from 
1820 to 1870 dry summers were most prevalent during the time 
of increasing sun spot numbers. On the whole the investigations 
on the relation between precipitation and sun spots are very con- 
flicting and have led to more or less doubtful results. Meteorolo- 
gists have here as in most similar investigations made the error of 
assuming that the same cause should everywhere produce the same 
effect, without taking sufificiently into consideration that the same 
cause at different places may act oppositely. Archibald and Hill 
have independently shown that the winter rain in India has the 
opposite course to that which Meldrum found. They obtained in 
fact a minimum at the maximum of sun spots and a maximum of 
winter rain about at the time of the minimum of sun spots. On 
the other hand, Hill seeks to show that the Indian summer mon- 
soon rain has a great tendency to vary in coincidence with the sun 
spots in this manner that an excess of precipitation occurs in the 
first half of the cycle after the sun spot maximum and vice versa, 
but on the whole the curves show little agreement. Blanford came 
meanwhile to the conclusion (1889) that the precipitation in India 
on the whole gave no sure indication of a ten- or eleven-year period 
for the last twenty-two years. 

For Europe, the connection between precipitation and sun spots 
has also been investigated. See Schreiber (1896, 1903), A. Buchan 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 1/7 

(1903), and others. P. Schreiber (1896, 1903) found a probable 
eleven-year period in the precipitation at different stations in Europe, 
but with two maxima, one, two years after sun spot maximum, 
the other at the time of sun spot minimum, and with two minima, 
one coincident with sun spot maximum and the other three years 
after the sun spot minimum. 

A. Buchan (1903) found a double period in the precipitation in 
Great Britain, so that a minimum occurs shortly after sun spot 
minimum and another shortly after sun spot maximum. The first 
and weaker maximum is much less marked in Scotland and west 
Europe than in southeast England where the principal maximum 
occurs nearer the sun spot maximum. 

G. Hellmann (1909) has investigated the relation of variation of 
precipitation in different parts of Europe to the sun spot period 
and finds that there is no universally followed rule about it. In 
most cases of the stations examined by him there occur within a sun 
spot period two maxima of rainfall which occur about six or five 
years from one another. At the time of sun spot minimum there oc- 
curs at most stations a maximum of rainfall, but in consequence of 
the progress of wet and dry years from south toward north, in 
western Europe the maxima and minima of precipitation tend to be 
progressively displaced in the sun spot cycle. 

The subdivision of the eleven-year period of rainfall Hellmann 
explains by an assumed double influence of the variation in the 
solar radiation during the sun spot period. First is a direct influence 
arising from the equatorial region and acting indirectly as an in- 
fluence upon the place itself. Hellman proceeds from the assump- 
tion, now proved erroneous, that at the time of sun spot minimum 
there is a greater radiation of the sun that at the time of sun spot 
maximum. This increased radiation he thinks would act principally 
in the equatorial regions of the earth to produce an increase of 
temperature, evaporation and precipitation and thereby would in- 
crease the energy of the total circulation of the atmosphere. This 
equatorial influence would be delayed in reaching the higher lati- 
tudes. But on the other hand the direct influence on the precipita- 
tion in these latitudes themselves due to the sun spots would be' 
considerably weaker than in the equatorial regions. The impulses 
derived respectively in the equatorial regions and in places of higher 
latitude would exercise together either a cumulative or an interfering 
action. It would be therefore conceivable, he thinks, that in one place 
the minimum of rainfall would be associated with maximum of sun 
spots, while in another place the opposite association would prevail. 



178 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

VARIATIONS IN HEIGHT OF WATER IN THE. LAKES AND RIVERS 

It has been found that the middle European rivers give an indica- 
tion of somewhat higher level of water at the time of sun spot maxi- 
mum than at sun spot minimum. The Nile shows also a well marked 
maximum at the time of sun spot maximum. 

The director of the Swedish Hydrographic Bureau, Dr. Axel 
Wallen, has, as already been stated, made valuable investigations on 
the height of the water in the great Swedish lakes. He has analyzed 
the periodic variations thoroughly and principally according to the 
method of consecutive means which Schreiber (1896) critically dis- 
cussed. In his investigation in Wenern (1910), Wallen proceeds 
from the monthly means (the a-values). By consecutive means 
over twelve months, the yearly period is estimated. Thus he 
obtains b-values, which he finds give the average interval between 
the successive maxima or minima of something over three years. 
He found then c-values by successive means of forty b-values, 
whereby the approximately three-year period is eliminated. In a 
similar way he eliminates further possible periods of eleven and 
thirty-five years. 

In order to study the single periods more accurately, Wallen com- 
putes the differences: a = a — b, jB = h — c, etc. He finds then for the 
height of the water in Wenern a period of thirty-two to thirty-three 
months with an amplitude of y6 centimeters (reduced). He also 
finds a double period of about twelve years, which is the sun spot 
period. Finally he discovers variations through a long series of 
years with an indication of the Briickner period. Concerning the 
sun spot period in the water level, Wallen finds a principal mini- 
mum nine months before the sun spot minimum and the prinicpal 
maximum two and a half years after the sun spot maximum. There 
is a weaker secondary maximum two years after the sun spot mini- 
mum and a more marked secondary minimum one year before the 
sun spot maximum. 

In combination with these investigations upon Wenern, Wallen 
also studied the variations of precipitation and temperature in the 
surroundings. He determined a sho'rt interval variation of twenty- 
six months in the precipitation and of two years in the temperature. 
The eleven-year period is divided for the precipitation about in the 
same way as for the water level with the two amplitudes within the 
eleven-year periods about equally great. In the three-year period 
the extremes of the water level are approximately constant at a 
half 3^ear after those of the precipitation. The temperature shows 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I79 

greater regularity. In the longer periods the two maxima follow 
the precipitation most closely (one to two years) after the sun spot 
extremes ; the minimum, however, some years later. The correspond- 
ing extremes of the water level and the temperature come about a 
year later than that of the precipitation, but the temperature is 
again more irregular than the water level (see Johansson, 1912). 

In a later article (1913) Wallen has exhaustively studied many 
years of variations of water level at Malaren, the precipitation in 
Upsala and the air temperature at Stockholm in a similar way to 
that of his earlier paper of 1910. For the shorter period he finds: 

Temperature, Stockholm. Length of period 26 months, Amplitude 2.8° C. 
Precipitation, Upsala. • Length of period 24 months. Amplitude 20 mm. per 

month. 
Water level Malaren. Length of period 30 months, Amplitude 40 cm. 

The eleven-year period in all three cases is double featured as 
Wallen had found for the height of the water at Wenern. The two 
maxima in the height of the water in Malaren are about equally 
great. The first maximum comes about fifteen months and the other 
eight months after the sun spot minimum. The amplitude is about 
20 cm. For the precipitation at Upsala the difiference between the 
two maxima is considerable, while the two minima are about equally 
intense. The extremes come some months earlier than the cor- 
responding extremes in the water level, and the amplitude in the 
monthly values of the precipitation amounts on the average to 
12 mm. Both for the precipitation and for the air temperature Wal- 
len found similar three-year and eleven-year variations for other 
stations in north Europe, as well as fo'r Upsala and Stockholm. He 
also found distinct traces of the Bruckner period in these elements in 
Sweden. 

GROWTH OF TREES 

We must now refer to an interesting investigation of Prof. A. E. 
Douglass (1914). By accurate measurements of the rings of yearly 
growth of pines (Pinus ponderosa) in Arizona, and by careful com- 
parison of the values found with the measured precipitation in this 
region in the last century, he conceives that he has established a 
basis whereby he can determine the variations in the precipitation 
in Arizona for the last five hundred years, employing for this pur- 
pose the measurements of the yearly growth for a number of selected 
and very old trees. In this manner he has obtained curves for the 
growth of the trees and for the precipitation in this interval of time. 



l8o SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

He finds well-marked periods of 150 years/ 21 years, and 11. 4 years. 
The last period, which corresponds to the sun spot period, is gen- 
erally divided into two shorter periods and has two maxima and two 
minima. This is particularly the case in the earlier 250 years from 
about 1420 to about 1670. In the time from about 1670 to about 
1790 these periods and also the eleven-year periods are less marked. 
In the time from about 1790 until now there are again two maxima 
and two minima within the eleven-year period, but the minimum 
in the middle of the period, that is, at sun spot maximum, is deep- 
est; so that particularly during this time the growth of trees in 
Arizona and consequently the precipitation varied oppositely to 
the sun spots. Prof, Douglass gives also a mean eleven-year curve 
for the precipitation and for the temperature on the coast of Cali- 
fornia, which is 500 miles from the Arizona region, for the 50 years 
1863 to 1912. This curve shows great similarity to the average 
curve of the eleven-year period for the growth of trees in Arizona 
during 492 years and also a similarity to the inverted average curve 
of sun spots for the eleven-year period, with the exceptions that the 
curves for growth and precipitation show two' well-developed maxima 
within the eleven-year period. 

By measurements of the yearly rings of growth of thirteen trees, 
at Eberswalde (in Germany) Douglass obtains a curve for the 
growth of these trees between 1830 and 1912 which corresponds 
well with the sun spot curve. Apparently in this region in Germany 
the growth of trees and the precipitation vary with the sun spots 
and not oppositely to them as in Arizona. Only in the sun spot 
period between 1890 and 1901 there is discordance and the variation 
goes inversely. In this period, however, we find in other meteoro- 
logical relations similar discordances. 

Douglass' curve for the growth of trees in Eberswalde shows also, 
though he does not mention it, a shorter period which agrees in 
part with the variations of the prominence curves and the magnetic 
curves. 

Huntingdon in 191 4 has also given measurements of the yearly 
rings of a great many old trees (Sequoias and Evergreen trees) in 
California and New Mexico in his investigations on climatic varia- 
tions. His results point to the fact that great variations in preci- 
pitation occurred during the last 3,000 years. He pays little atten- 
tion, however, to the periodicity in recent times. 



^ See the period of three hundred years of Clough (1905) and of seventy-two 
years of Hansky (1894). 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC l8l 

CLOUDINESS AND SUN SPOTS 

The relation between the variations in the cloudiness and the solar 
activity is less accurately investigated. Klein has, however, shown 
that the highest clouds in the atmosphere, the cirrus, the cirro- 
stratus, and cirro-cumulus increase with the development of sun 
spots. Since these highest clouds produce the halos and similar 
phenomena around the sun and moon, such as mock suns, mock 
moons, and similar optical phenomena, it would be expected that 
these would be more prevalent at sun spot maximum than at sun 
spot minimum. This is actually the case, as is shown by the statistics 
of such phenomena over a considerable interval of time made by 
Tromholt. Even Tyco Brahe's diaries show that halos round the 
sun and moon are most prevalent in times of Northern Lights. 

DUST IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND SUN SPOTS 

Reference should be made here to the remarkable agreement found 
by Busch in the year 1891, between the variations of the sun spots 
and the variations in the polarization of the sky light. He found 
that the height of the neutral point (Arrago's point and Babinet's 
point) above the horizon at sunset rose and fell along with the fre- 
quency of sun spots, but the maximum and minimum of the neutral 
point came on the whole a year later than the maximum and mini- 
mum of sun spots. Earlier it was shown that after great volcanic 
eruptions, such as the Krakatao eruption, the recorded heights of 
the neutral points were increased. This depends upon the volcanic 
dust which is thrown out to the higher layers of the earth's atmos- 
phere. From this we may conclude that at sun spot maximura 
the higher layers of the earth's atmosphere are filled with more 
dust than at sun spot minimum (see Arrhenius, 1903, p. 873). 

THEORIES ON THE RELATION BETWEEN VARIATIONS OF THE SOLAR 
ACTIVITY AND METEOROLOGICAL VARIATIONS 

After the above summary of the earlier investigations, it must be 
admitted that there is a dependence between the variations of 
the meteorological elements, such as the temperature and pressure, 
and the variations in the solar activity. 

For the explanation of this dependence various hypotheses have 
been put forward. These may be divided principally into five classes, 
as follows : 

I. The direct, that is to say, that the variations in the tempera- 
ture of the earth are caused directly by variations in the outgoing 
radiation from the sun. 



l82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

2. The variations in terrestrial temperature depend upon varia- 
tions in the evaporation of the ocean and corresponding cloud 
formation and precipitation over the land. 

3. Variations in terrestrial temperatures depend upon volcanic 
dust in the higher layers of the earth's atmosphere. 

4. The periodic temperature variations depend upon changes of 
the ozone formation in the atmosphere. 

5. Finally, the hypothesis that the variations, for example in the 
temperature and precipitation, depend upon variations of air pres- 
sure and circulation of the atmosphere, which again depend upon 
variations of the solar activity. 

The first named theory, namely, that variations in terrestrial tem- 
perature are caused directly by variations in the same sense of the 
solar radiation, has been put forth by a number of investigators ; 
for example, Chambers, Newcomb, Abbot and Fowle (in the year 
1908), and we find it still in the more recent investigations of 
Arctowski and in part Huntington and many others.'' Remember- 
ing Lockyer's spectroscopic investigations of the sun — in which he 
showed with some certainty that the solar surface is warmest at 
maximum of sun spots — it is surprising that it sho'uld still have been 
thought that increased temperature of the earth at sun spot mini- 
murn could be attributed to an increase in the output of solar radia- 
tion. However,, it was still conceivable that even if the real tempera- 
ture of the sun increased it might be that the output of solar 
radiation did not correspondingly increase. It might be considered 
perhaps that formation of clouds or dust in the solar corona hindered 
the outgoing radiation of the sun. But in the pyrheliometric and 
bolometric measurements which were made by Langley and by 
Abbot and Fowle after 1902, first in Washington and after 1905 
on Mt. Wilson in America, and after their investigations on Mt. 
Whitney in America, and in Algeria, it must be considered as having 
been shown that the solar radiation which reaches the outside of 
the earth's atmosphere experiences no variations which correspond 
directly with the observed variations in the atmosphere at the sur- 
face of the earth. These measurements indicate plainly that the 
" solar constant " (that is, the solar radiation outside of our atmos- 
phere) is considerably greater near the sun spot maximum than 
near the sun spot minimum. Although the measurements do not 



^Huntington, however, later (1914-a) came to the view that the variations 
in the solar activity cause first variations in the storminess, as we shall later 
refer to more at length. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATION'S IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 183 

show exact agreement they show at least with certainty that the 
relation cannot be inverted/ These measurements lead further- 
more to the remarkable discovery which was confirmed by coinci- 
dent observations on Mt. Wilson and in Algeria that the radiation 
of the sun outside our atmosphere varies considerably from time 
to time within a few days interval, sometimes increasing, sometimes 
decreasing. Hence our sun is in a high degree similar to the other 
variable stars which we see in the heavens, like the star Myra. 
According to these measurements the theory that the observed 
eleven-year variation in the air temperature on the earth's surface 
follows directly corresponding variations in the output of solar 
radiation must be definitely abandoned. 

It was particularly Blanf ord who advanced the second theory, 
that depression in the terrestrial temperature at sun spot maximum 
depends upon increased solar radiation, which produces an increased 
evaporation of the ocean and thereby an increased formation of 
clouds on the land, which in its turn again diminshes the solar radia- 
tion on the continental surfaces and causes a fall of temperature. 
Besides this the re-evaporation of the increased rainfall would fur- 
ther diminish the temperature. That this theory — which seems so 
reasonable — has not so general application as was to be expected 
must be partially explained by the fact that investigation of the varia- 
tions in the cloudiness show that these do not have an exact rela- 
tion with the variations in the sun spots, such as the theory assumes. 
But there is yet another difficulty. According to this theory one 
would expect that the surface temperature of the ocean, particu- 
larly in the tropical regions, would be highest at sun spot maximum 
and lowest at sun spot minimum, but this as we have seen, is not 
the result of our collected observations. On the contrary our 
temperature tables and temperature curves show for different parts 
of the ocean the inverse relation, that is, lower temperature at sun 
spot maximum and high at sun spot minimum. It may be recalled. 



^The following values (in calories) of the solar constant were obtained 
on Mt. Wilson : 

1905 June to Oct. 1.956 1910 May to Nov. 1.921 

1906 May to Oct. 1.942 191 1 June to Nov. 1.923 

1908 May to Nov. 1.936 1912 June to Aug. 1.940 

1909 June to Oct. 1.918 

According to this there was a maximum in 1905 which could correspond 
to the sun-spot maximum, but on the other hand there was a minimum io 
1909 and a secondary maximum in 1912. 



184 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

for example, that the variations in the temperature of the surface 
and of the air in the middle of the Indian Ocean (see figs. 55, X-XI) 
agree with the variations of the air temperature at the tropical 
stations of Mauritius, Batavia, and others (see figs. 68, 71). This 
shows that the explanation of the general phenomena of tempera- 
ture variations of the earth which we have referred to is untenable. 
We shall later return to this consideration. 

With regard to the theory of Abbot and Fowle and of Humphreys, 
that the extension of volcanic dust in the atmosphere has an im- 
portant influence on variations of the temperature of the earth's 
surface, the curves given by these authors of the pyrheliometric 
measurements of the heat obtained from the solar radiation at the 
surface of the earth do not fully prove their hypothesis, since the 
curves have only a small similarity with the curve of the variations 
in the yearly temperature of the earth. This latter has indeed a 
very great similarity with the curve of sun spots. However, it 
must be admitted that these authors have made it probable that 
the volcanic dust which is distributed in the atmosphere, particu- 
larly at times of the most violent volcanic eruptions, acts in such 
a way that the temperature at the earth's surface is depressed, and 
according to Humphreys' opinion it may be even possible that this 
effect was in former times very considerable. But the influence 
is not sufficient in order to explain the continuous and often great 
variations in the climatic temperature of the earth. 

Humphreys' theory that the eleven-year variation in the tem- 
perature of the earth, which is associated with sun spots, depends 
on variations in the ozone formation in the atmosphere, assumes 
a corresponding variation in the relation between incoming radia- 
tion and outgoing radiation at the earth's surface, in other words, 
the corresponding variation both in the daily and the yearly tem- 
perature amplitude of the earth. But as we shall see later, such a 
variation in this amplitude cannot be proved with certainty, at 
least not such as the theory assumes. 

Finally we come to those theories according to which the variations 
in the solar activity produce primarily variations in the air pres- 
sure and in the circulation of the atmosphere which in their turn 
influence other meterological elements. This view, which has been 
advocated particularly by the two Lockyers and by Bigelow would 
appear reasonable, but hitherto has had comparatively little support. 
It agrees in its principal features with the results to which we have 
arrived, and we shall refer later to this theory. 



NO, 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 185 

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE 

Recently we have had opportunity to consult Huntington's treatise 
entitled "The Solar Hypothesis of Climatic Changes" (1914-a), 
which contains the very valuable investigation by Prof. Kullmer 
on variations in the storm tracks in America and the considerations 
based thereon. Like Prof. Bigelow previously, Prof. Kullmer found 
that the great northerly storm track in the United States is dis- 
placed further to the north at maximum of sun spots, while the 
less important southern storm track is displaced further south. 
He finds also that the frequency of storms in the United States 
is greatest at sun spot maximum and least at sun spot minimum. 
In consequence of the motion of these storm tracks there is a bow- 
shaped region in the middle states in which the storminess varies 
alternately. That is, it is greatest at sun spot minimum and least 
at sun spot maximum. In comparisons with the variations in the 
storm tracks and the frequency of storms Kullmer and Hunting- 
ton have used only the sun spots and no other sign of the varia- 
tions of the solar activity, such as the prominences and the varia- 
tions in the magnetic elements on the earth. They have therefore 
not noticed that the numbers which they give for the storminess and 
which agree somewhat badly with the variations in the sun spots, 
that these numbers, I say, give distinct indications of shorter periods 
than the eleven-year period which they have alone considered. 

The tables of storminess published by Huntington (1914-a, p. 502) 
give within the sun spot period three shorter well-marked periods 
which he has not called attention to, for he believes that the apparent 
irregularity and disagreement with the numbers of the sun spots is 
due to imperfect observations. The curves given in his figure 9 
show this. But the disagreement between the curve of storminess 
and the curve of sun spots causes him so great difficulty that he 
explains that the problem must be provisionally unelucidated. He 
has not noted that these storm curves of Kullmer have the same 
short period of about three years which Bigelow found in the varia- 
tions of the storm tracks and in the variations of air pressure and 
temperature and which the two Lockyers and others have noted 
in the air pressure. 

In figure 64 we give Kullmer's curve (St, according to Hunting- 
ton) for the storminess in the northern United States, together with 
curves for the prominences (P according to the observations in 
Rome and Catania), for the disturbances of the magnetic element 
at Potsdam (M) and for the sun spots (S). The storm curve shows 

13 



1 86 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 



three or four short periods in the first sun spot period of the figure, 
four periods in the second, and three in the third sun spot period. 
The last three short periods fall very well with corresponding 
periods in the variation of the prominences and particularly in the 
disturbances of the magnetic elements. The sun spot curve shows 
also an indication of the same three periods. In the sun spot period, 
1889 to 1902, the agreement between the storm curve and particu- 
larly the magnetic curve is not very good. In the sun spot period 
of 1878 to 1889 the storm curve and the prominence curve agree, 
but the variations in the prominences come later on than the varia- 
tions in the storminess. At the storm maximum in the year 1880 
there is nothing corresponding in the other curves. On the whole 




Figure 64. St: storminess in the northern United States according to 
Kullmer. P: average daily number of prominences according to the observa- 
tions in Rome to 1898 and Catania. M : degree of disturbance of the three 
magnetic elements at Potsdam. S : observed relative sun spot numbers 
according to Wolfer. 

the storminess in this eleven-year period appears to be much less 
than it should be in comparison with the prominences and sun spots. 
Kullmer's investigations on the variations in storm tracks and 
storminess have furthermore led Huntington to the view that the 
variations in the storminess on the earth are the cause of the varia- 
tions of the temperature on the surface of the earth. He assumes that 
an increased storminess would cause the temperature to fall, par- 
ticularly in the warmer regions of the earth, because the warm air 
from lower latitudes would be carried by the storms to higher lati- 
tudes and there would rise above the colder air at the earth's sur- 
face. This colder air would then displace the warmer air at lower 
latitudes and partly by vertical circulation the warmth continually de- 
veloped at the earth's surface would penetrate to the higher layers 
of the air. Huntington considers that this influx of greater quanti- 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 187 

ties of heat into the higher layers of the air does not tend to affect 
them so much since they will pass on these quantities of heat into 
outlying space by increased outgoing radiation. 

In this way Huntington thinks that the equatorial and subtropi- 
cal regions may lose heat and that thereby the temperature may 
be lowered by increased storminess at maximum of sun spots. In 
higher latitudes and especially in polar regions no such sinking of 
the temperature would follow. In those regions perhaps no great 
difference occurs between maximum and minimum of sun spots, or 
the relation may be even inverted so that an increase of tempera- 
ture may occur at maximum of sun spots. 

As the reader may see, Huntington's view of the cause of the 
variations in the air temperature of the earth agrees with that which 
Bigelow had previously advanced in so far as he attributes the 
principal cause to the air circulation. Other investigators, particu- 
larly the two Lockyers, as we have said in our summary of earlier 
investigations in this matter, have come to the same conclusion. We 
see also that Huntington's conclusions have some similarity with 
ours, although we had not in fact thought of the frequency of 
storms, but more of the increase or diminution of the air circulation 
in general. Furthermore, we had in mind a somewhat different 
method of correlation between variations in the air circulation and 
variations in the temperature of the atmosphere. 

Kullmer has called attention in his work to the possibility of a 
correlation between the storms and the terrestrial magnetism. He 
maintains that there are three storm centers which correspond to 
the three magnetic poles. In the southern hemisphere there is only 
one magnetic pole and the cyclonic storms circulate about it in the 
vicinity of 60° south latitude, not concentrically about the geographi- 
cal pole, but about the magnetic pole. In the northern hemisphere, 
the most important storm track of the world extends almost exactly 
concentric with the magnetic North Pole in northern Canada, thence 
across North America, over the Atlantic Ocean to Scandinavia, and 
the storm track in the Atlantic Ocean follows almost exactly the 
lines of equal magnetic total intensity. In Siberia there is another 
secondary magnetic pole and corresponding to it there is a third 
storm track which has its middle point in Japan. 

XL THE VARIATIONS IN THE METEOROLOGICAL RELATIONS 

IN THE TROPICS AND THE NORTHERN REGIONS 

From Koppen's curves for the mean temperatures in different 

years in different regions of the earth it is apparent that in many 

instances very distinct relations occur between the sun spot periods 



l88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

and the temperature variations in our atmosphere at the earth's sur- 
face. However, the eleven-year sun spot period in the temperature 
curves is to a great extent overshadowed by the shorter interval 
variations. 



RELATION BETWEEN THE TEMPERATURES OF DIFFERENT REGIONS OF 
THE EARTH AND SUN SPOTS 

In order to bring out the longer periods more clearly we have 
smoothed the yearly means given for different regions of the earth by 




Figure 65. Average variation of the air temperature during the sun spot 
periods in the time 181 1 to 1910 according to Koppen (1914). 

Koppen which we took from Mielke's temperature series published 
in his paper of the year 19 14. We have first taken consecutive 
three-year means and from them as a basis eleven-year means. 
These are shown in the curves of figure 66. At the top there is 
given in a full drawn curve the smoothed relative numbers of sun 
spots according to Wolfer's tables. The dotted curve gives the 
consecutive eleven-year means of the smoothed relative numbers. 
The other full drawn curves show the temperature variations in dif- 
ferent regions of the earth smoothed as three-year means. The 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 189 




190 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

dotted lines show the corresponding- values with successive eleven- 
year smoothing. 

Between several of these curves and the inverted sun spot curve 
there is an extraordinary agreement. Particularly the curves for 
the tropics, for North America, and in a less degree those for eastern 
Asia are of this character. The variations in the curve for eastern 
Asia appear to be displaced a couple of years in relation to the 
sun spot curve. In general it holds that a maximum of sun spots cor- 
responds to a minimum of temperature. The reader should note 
that the scale of the sun spots increases downwards, while the scale 
of the temperature curves increases upwards. 

The other curves show many small variations and in several cases 
there is a strongly marked tendency to a half sun spot period in the 
temperature variations. This is shown particularly well in the curve 
for Russia where a minimum of temperature occurs approximately 
at maximum of sun spots, but also a considerable minimum at the 
minimum of sun spots. This is shown also in figure 65 which is 
taken from Koppen's paper. The shorter periods are of course for 
the most part removed from our curves in figure 66 in consequence 
of the smoothing. 

In figure 67 we have compared the sun spot curve (S) with the 
smoothed temperature curve for the whole earth (curve a) by con- 
secutive three-years smoothing from the values given in Mielke- 
Koppen tables. The agreement between these two curves is very 
great and the existence of sun spot periods in the variations of the 
air temperature upon the earth cannot be doubted. We have 
studied the correlation between these two curves in this way: we 
have determined the average temperature value which corresponds 
to certain sun spot numbers. The means of these values we have 
given in curve c in figure 67. This curve shows therefore the tem- 
perature distribution which we should expect dependent upon the 
number of sun spots. 

The difference between curve a and curve c is plotted in the curve 
a-c which, however, shows considerable variations outside of 
those which correspond to the simple sun spot period. As the reader 
will perceive, there is a tendency in this curve to show two small 
variations within each of the great simple sun spot periods. 

In order to pursue the question of what relation exists between the 
variations of the sun and the meteorological phenomena upon the 
earth, it is of importance to study the meteorological elements sepa- 
rately. We have therefore collected a great series of investigations 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC IQI 




192 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 



of meteorological phenomena in different parts of the earth. As 
was to be expected, these show that in high latitudes the relations 
are more complex and are connected with more frequent and greater 
fluctuations than in the tropics where the phenomena proceed more 




Figure 68. Curves of the meteorological elements at Batavia. a-curves 
indicate the directly observed monthly means, ^-curves represent the mean 
of the foregoing in consecutive twelve-month smoothing, c-curves, continued 
consecutive twenty-four months smoothing. S, smoothed relative sun spot 
numbers. R, P. C, successive twelve-month means of the daily numbers of 
prominences according to the observations in Rome (R) Palermo (P) and 
Catania (C). Scale on the right, 100 equals lo.o. 

simply and are more easily studied. It is therefore most natural 
to begin our investigations with the tropics. 



VARIATIONS OF METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN BATAVIA 

Among the tropical stations we have studied first Batavia, where 
very complete satisfactory investigations of meteorological elements 
have been made for a long series of years. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I93 

In figure 68 we give the curves for the variations of the different 
meteorological elements in Batavia. There are three kinds of curves : 
a-curves which show. the variations in the directly observed monthly 
means ; ^-curves in which these monthly means are smoothed by tak- 
ing twelve-monthly consecutive values ; and c-curves which are 
smoothed by taking consecutive twenty-four-monthly means. 

By comparison of these different curves there is found a great 
similarity even in many details. We shall consider particularly 
the ^-curves. It appears that the greater variations are repeated 
in all the curves, but so that the temperature variations occur some- 
what later than the air pressure variations and the variations in 
other elements. That the variations in air pressure occur often 
several months before the variations in temperature is seen in many 
instances in the a-curves, see for instance the years 1877 and 1878, 
where we find three well marked maxima in air pressure which 
occur several months later in the temperature. 

It is natural to think that variations in air pressure call forth 
variations in the cloudiness and thereby again variations in preci- 
pitation and in the daily temperature amplitude. Variations in the 
cloudiness will obviously call forth variations in the temperature 
of the air. A great cloudiness at a station like Batavia in the 
tropics is accompanied by low temperature. In our figures the 
scale of cloudiness has been given with increasing values down- 
wards, while for the temperature the scale increases upwards. 
Changes in the temperature come in consequence of the earth's 
capacity for heat somewhat later than the changes in the cloudiness. 
But these are instantly accompanied by changes in the daily tem- 
perature amplitude. The consequence of this is that the variations 
in the daily temperature amplitude as a rule precede somewhat 
the variations in the average temperature of the place, as is shown by 
comparison of our curves in figure 68. We have drawn a &-curve 
for the mean daily temperature amplitude. This shows on the whole 
the same variations as the other curves. It may be of particular inter- 
est to note that the well-marked minimum which we found in the 
year 1904 for the surface temperature in the Atlantic Ocean is also 
shown in all the curves of meteorological elements in Batavia except 
in the curve for the wind velocity and for the daily temperature 
amplitude. 

As the reader will see, the ^-curves and the c-curves follow one 
another on the whole. Apart from some individual exceptions the 
principal variations occur in both curves in common, which indi- 



194 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 



cates that the two-year period plays no great part in the conditions 
at Batavia. Taking the intervals in months, for example between 
the maxima in a long series of years in the different curves, one 
finds an average interval between them of 32 to 33 months, which 
corresponds to a quarter of a sun spot period. 

Comparing these curves for meteorological relations with the 
sun spot curve (S) which stands lowest in the figure, we see as a 
rule that at minimum of sun spots a maximum of air pressure, 
temperature and of daily temperature amplitude occurs and the 




Figure 69. Batavia. Curves show successive three-year means of tempera- 
ture, (T) ; air pressure, (B) ; rainfall, (P) ; sun spots, (S) ; prominences, 
(RC) ; according to the observations in Rome up to 1898, and in Catania. 

minimum of cloudiness and precipitation. At maximum of sun 
spots there occur on the whole similar but secondary maxima and 
minima in agreement with the above mentioned quartering of sun 
spot periods. The short periods of about three years agree partially 
with corresponding periods in the prominence curves R, P and C. 
We shall speak later of this again. 

The correspondence between variations in the sun spots and in the 
temperature and air pressure in Batavia is particularly well seen 
if one takes the separate yearly means of meteorogical elements by 
consecutive three-year intervals. The result of such a computa- 
tion is given in figure 69, where the curves of air pressure and 
temperature are given with increasing scale numbers upwards and 
the curve of sun spots with increasing scale numbers downwards. 
The eleven-year period of meteorological phenomena comes very 
plainly to view, but it is to be noted that there are indications of a 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I95 

division of this period into two. The quarterly division is of course 
eliminated by the process of smoothing. 

The observational material at Batavia continues from the year 
1866 to 1910, that is, through four sun spot periods. We have taken 
the mean value for these four periods and the results are given in 
figure 70, where the sun spot curve S is obtained by taking the 
mean of the four eleven-year periods. Corresponding curves of 
air temperature T, air pressure B, and precipitation P for Batavia 



n 1 2 5^56789 10 111 




Figure 70. Batavia. Average variations in the air temperature, (T) : air 
pressure, (B) ; rainfall, (P) ; sun spots, (S) ; prominences, (RC), during the 
sun spot periods in the time 1866 to 1910. 



are given. The prominence curve R C is obtained by similar com- 
putation for the time interval 1872 to 1910. 

From these two figures it may be seen as we have already found 
that the air pressure and other phenomena on the whole are earlier 
with their variations than the air temperature. In figure 70 the 
division of the eleven-year period into two halves is distinctly shown 
for all meteorological elements. 

The analysis of meteorological elements in Batavia shows there- 
fore distinctly variations with 11, 5^ and 2f years, therefore the 
whole, half, and quarter of the sun spot period. 



196 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS AT DIFFERENT STATIONS IN THE 
TROPICS AND OTHER REGIONS 

We have also studied the meteorological variations in a series of 
other tropical stations and have given the results of the investigation 
in figure 71. The curves have the following significance: T for 
temperature, B for air pressure, P for precipitation, N for cloudi- 
ness, and T-A for temperature amplitude. At the top of the figure 
the temperature and pressure curves for Batavia are repeated. In 
the remainder of the figure are given curves for WelHngton in south 
India, Mauritius, Antananarivo in Madagascar, Port au Prince, 
Haiti, Fort de France, Martinique, and finally Arequipa, Peru, and 
Bombay. The temperature curves VIII a and h for Bombay are 
taken from Arctowski's paper, 1912 and 191 5. The scale is not 
exactly the same as the scales of the other curves, but very nearly 
the same. 

Considering first the temperature curves (heavy lines) we see a 
close similarity among them except that for Bombay after 1900 
(curve VIII-&). As an example we may note especially the mini- 
mum in the years 1903 and 1904 and the maximum in 1905 and 
1906, which are found in all except the curve for Bombay and almost 
exactly at coincident times. The other well marked maxima and 
minima are found almost exactly at the same time in all the curves 
or at the most with only a two-month phase displacement. We find, 
in other words, the same variations, so that for example the 2f-year 
period is found in different regions of the earth as it is found 
in Batavia and Arequipa, Peru. 

However, the temperature curve for Bombay in the years 1900 
to 1909 runs in exactly the opposite direction to all the others. This 
is the more surprising because the other stations, Batavia, Welling- 
ton, Mauritius, and Antananarivo show at the same time complete 
agreement. All the stations lie around the Indian Ocean. More- 
over the distance for example between Bombay and Wellington at 
the south point of India is relatively very small. The curve Vlll-a 
for Bombay for the years before 1889 shows, however, complete 
agreement with the other curves (see fig. 91, la and IV). 

Arctowski (1912, 1914, 1915) has published temperature curves 
fo'und by twelve-monthly consecutive means for a large number of 
meteorological stations in different parts of the earth. In figures 
72 and 73 we have repeated part of these curves, and with them 
some of the curves obtained in the same way representing the dis- 
tribution of temperatures in the Atlantic Ocean, in the Danish and 




Figure 71. Curves for different meteorological elements with consecutive 
twelve-month smoothing. T : air temperature. B : air pressure. A : daily- 
temperature amplitude. M: quantity of cloudiness. P: rainfall. M: dis- 
turbance of the three magnetic elements at Potsdam, scale on the right. R: 
daily number of prominences according to the observations in Rome. PC: 
according to the observations in Palermo and Catania. Twelve-month 
smoothing. 



198 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 



70 




1905 



Figure ']2. Curves in consecutive twelve-monthly smoothing for the air 
temperature (according to Arctowski), surface temperature (I, V, VI, X). 
i^ : monthly mean of the daily number of prominences according to observa- 
tions m Catania. M : degree of disturbance of the three magnetic elements in 
l^otsdam. Curves P and M are inverted. All curves indicate the consecutive 
twelve-month smoothed means. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE N'ARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC I99 

Dutch fields (see fig. '/2, V and VI, fig. 73, IX and XIV). We also 
show the results in the fields of the International Central Bureau 
(see fig. 72, I and IX) and also similar curves for the whole of 
Norway and for meteorological stations in the western United States 
on the Pacific Ocean. As the reader will see, there is an undeniable 
coincident agreement between many of these curves taken from 
such different regions of the earth. But at the same time it is also 




Figure 'JZ- Similar curves to figure 72 for the air temperature (mostly 
according to Arctowski) and the surface temperature (IX, XIV). 



apparent that the curves belong to more or less marked types. For 
example observe the well-marked type which governs the surface 
temperatures of the ocean in the fields of 20° north latitude and 
20° to 22° west longitude shown in figure 72, I. Also the type for 
the air temperature at Batavia. Arequipa, Bulawayo and other 
places shown in curves II to IV. This is the same type which is 
found in all of our tropical stations in figure 71, as Batavia, Well- 
ington, Mauritius, etc. 



200 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 

There is another type which is characteristic of the more western 
Danish fields at 20° to 29° west longitude and 30° to 39° west 
longitude shown in figure J2., V and VI, and also in the air tempera- 
ture curves for Eastport, Para (shown in curves VII and VIII) and 
in part also of the curves for Barbados, Ponta del Gada, St. Helena, 
Hongkong, as shown in curves IX, XI to XIII, and also in the sur- 
face temperature curve for the equatorial field at 29° to 31° west 
longitude (curve X). The curve for St. Johns (XIV) shows a 
similarity with that for Eastport, but differs in having a secondary 
maximum in the year 1904. Considerable similarity with this type 
is also found for the type which includes El Paso, Corpus Christi, 
Bombay, Honolulu (XVI to XIX) and similarity with these is again 
found in the curve for Cape Colony, (XV) but this last type, the 
Bombay type, runs as we have said directly opposite to the types of 
Batavia. 

To a completely different type belong the curves I and II of figure 
73, for the air temperature in the western United States on the 
coast of the Pacific Ocean. These comprise Mielke's region No. 10 
as collected by us, and curves for Los Angeles in California after 
Arctowski. Some similarity with this type is found in the tempera- 
ture curves for Havre and Miles City, both in Montana. There is 
a certain degree of similarity to these in the Greenland curves for 
Upernavik and Ivigtut (V and VI), but there is a further develop- 
ment from these over to Angmagsalik (VII) and Beruf jord (VIII) 
on the east coast of Iceland and to Thorshaven (X) on the Faroe 
Islands. An agreement with the last named curve is shown by 
curve IX for the surface temperature in the eastern Danish field 
0° to 9° west longitude south of the Faroe Islands, and this again 
has a partial agreement with the curve for the air temperature in 
all Norway (XI). These curves have again a certain similarity 
with the curve XII for the the air temperature in Bermuda and 
also with the curve for San Juan in Porto Rico (XIII). This 
again, as mentioned above, has a similarity with the curve for the sur- 
face temperature of the ocean in the Dutch 10° square at 15° to 
24° north latitude (XIV) and also with the curve for Arequipa 
(XV). 

If we had curves for stations lying between, of which Arctowski 
gives some, we should see a gradual transition between these dif- 
ferent curves. We see that in this way a correlation between the 
temperature variations in very widely different regions of the earth 
may be found, while in closer lying regions between them occur 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 201 

variations very different and often having almost entirely different 
characteristics. 

Two of the principal types which we may call those of Batavia and 
Bombay show variations which on the whole in the period of time 
between 1900 and 1910 were in complete opposition. Several of 



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Figure 74. Curves with consecutive twelve-month smoothing for the monthly 
mean temperature in the United States. I : in Mielke's region 10, Pacific States 
(north, middle and south Pacific Coast). II: Mielke's region 9, Gulf states (Florida, 
east and west Gulf). IV: in Mielke's region 17, Atlantic states (New England, 
southern and middle Atlantic states). VI :^ Mielke's region 16, interior states 
(lower and upper lake region, Ohio, upper Mississippi-Missouri Valley, northern, 
middle and southern plateau). Curves III, V, VII: Air pressure in Galveston, 
Washington and Duluth. M : degree of disturbance o£ the three magnetic elements 
in Potsdam.^ R. and C : monthly means of daily number of prominences according 
to observations in Rome, (R) Catania (C). All curves indicate the consecutive 
twelve-month smoothed mean values. 

1 Incorrectly indie ted with V in the figure. 

2The numbers on the scale for M should be 6, 5, 4, 3, instead, 4, 5, 6, 7. 

the other curves, particularly the type of curves represented by the 
surface temperature of the middle Atlantic Ocean, the most westerly 
of the Danish fields (fig. 72, V and VI), Eastport, Para, and St. 
Johns are transition forms between these two opposite types. 

14 



202 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES 

We now go on to consider the curves in figure 74 which give the 
meteorological relations in different regions of the United States, 
and we find here in the temperature curves as shown in plate 18-L 
two types. The one type is represented by the curve for the region 
on the Pacific coast (curve I) and the other by the curves of the 
eastern states on the coast of the Alantic Ocean (curve IV) as well as 
those for the Mexican Gulf (curve II). The temperature curves 
for the interior states form a transition between these two types 
of curves and have now the one type, now the other. Where both 
types simultaneously have minimum or maximum these are particu- 
larly strongly marked in the transition forms, as for example the 
minimum in the years 1898 and 1899. This agrees also completely 
with what Hildebrandsson has pointed out, when he indicates an 
action sphere along the Pacific coast and another in the eastern 
states. 

Considering now these curves for the time interval after 1900 
we find that the curve for the Pacific is of a very individual type of 
its own while the other type characteristic of the easterly stations 
on the Atlantic coast is the same as that represented by Batavia and 
the other tropical stations which we have investigated, including 
Arequipa. After 1900 there appears a dissimilarity between the 
curve for the Gulf states and the curve for the Atlantic states, while 
these two curves for the time interval before 1900 had com- 
plete agreement. This disagreement for the later period of time 
is of such a nature that the curve for the Gulf states is similar to 
the curve for Corpus Christi (see fig. 72, XVII) which was indeed 
to be expected since this lies on the Gulf, but it also is similar to 
the curve for Bombay and the other similar curves. 

If Hildebrandsson is right in his conception of the action 
spheres, we should expect that the curves for the eastern United 
States along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean as well as the curve 
for the Gulf states would have similarity with the temperature 
curves for Scandinavia. Placing these American curves with the 
curve of the coast temperature along the Norwegian coast, the 
curve for the air temperature for all Norway, and the air tempera- 
ture in Stockholm, we find a remarkable agreement. This is plainly 
shown in figure 75 without more particularly describing it. This 
indicates that Hildebrandsson- is right in his view. In the same 
figure at the top we have given the twelve-monthly smoothed curve 
for Liepe's station No. i. As the reader will see, this does not 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 203 

agree completely with the other curves but shows in several time 
intervals of many years a close agreement. Occasionally, however, 
it goes oppositely. It fo'rms plainly a mixed form between the two 
t3'pes of curves, in the same way as the curve for the interior states 
of North America. This is also as we should expect following 
Hildebrandsson, since this curve should agree with the curve for 
middle Europe, which is a mixed form between the curves for north 
Europe and those for south Europe. The south European curve 
should furthermore, according to Hildebrandsson, agree with the 
curve for the Pacific coasts. 

SUDDEN DISCONTINUITIES IN THE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE 
CURVES OF DIFFERENT STATIONS 

If we compare the curves of figure 75 for Batavia and the Ameri- 
can region, we see that the variations in the Atlantic states and 
Batavia ran parallel in the period of time after 1897. In the earlier 
years, however, the two curves go in inverted directions, and the 
variations at Batavia correspond to the variations on the Pacific 
coast. As we have already remarked, the variations in Batavia 
and at Bombay go oppositely to one another in the time interval 
1900 to 1909, but not, however, for the time 1880 to 1889 (see fig. 71, 
Vlll-a. and b). Except for the Arctowski curves for the above 
mentioned time interval we have not had opportunity to study the 
temperature relations in Bombay by similar twelve-monthly smooth- 
ing as we have done for Batavia. In order to make a comparison 
for the earlier years between the temperature variations in Bom- 
bay and in Batavia we have therefore been obliged for the present to 
restrict ourselves to the yearly means of temperature which are found 
in Mielke's plates, and from them we have constructed curve IV 
in figure 91. From this one sees that the two temperature curves 
III and IV ran oppositely after 1897, but parallel before that time. 

The opposition between the types for Batavia and Bombay holds 
only for the last series of years after 1897 and not for the 
earlier years. A somewhat similar relation holds as between the 
curves for Batavia and the Pacific states. It is moreover possible 
that the same thing occurs for the temperature variations at several 
other stations where the curves for the last time interval after 1900 
follow an opposing course. The conclusion may therefore be drawn 
that a given station does not always continue within the same 
climatic region or action center, for the boundaries of it are more 
or less displaced and often over a long series of years, so that in 



204 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 




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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTIT ATLANTIC 205 

this series of years an inversion o'f the variations occurs at the given 
station. This happens, as Hildebrandsson has rightly claimed, at 
stations which are on the boundary between two action centers, as 
for example in middle Europe and interior America, but the boun- 
dary displacements can obviously at times be so great as to bring 
in places which at other times have very well-marked type characters. 

VARIATIONS IN DIFFERENT METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS 

Before we go farther in our consideration of the temperature and 
its variations we will say a few words on the variations in other 
meteorological elements, as these have come within our investiga- 
tions and are shown -on figure 71. 

As for precipitation, we have outside of Batavia the twelve- 
monthly consecutive means only for Antananarivo on Madagascar 
and for Fort de France in the West Indies (curves P.). As re- 
gards Antananarivo, there are here no well-marked agreements 
between the variations in the air temperature and the variations in 
precipitation. The latter seems generally to run oppositely to the 
variations in the air pressure.'' In Fort de France there is also 
no well-marked agreement between the variations in precipitation 
and the variations in temperature, although on the other hand the 
curve for the precipitation goes pretty well with the air pressure. 

As for the cloudiness we have only the twelve-monthly consecu- 
tive means (fig. 71, IV, N) for Antananarivo, except those for 
Batavia given in figure 68. It appears from these that the cloudi- 
ness has a certain tendency to vary oppositely to the temperature. 
The scale of cloudiness is given in the figure with increasing values 
downwards. We find, in other words, the same relation that we 
found for Batavia, but less well marked. 

As regards Batavia, we found a complete agreement between 
the variations in the daily temperature amplitude and the variations 
in other meteorological elements. A similar investigation with 
twelve-monthly consecutive means has been made for other tropi- 
cal stations and the result is given in the curves T-A in figure 71. 
On the whole there is here no well marked agreement between these 
curves and the temperature curves. At single stations, Port au 
Prince and partly at Mauritius there is an agreement with the 
curve for the air pressure. 

We will now consider somewhat more at length the variations 
in air pressure which are shown in curves in figure 71. As already 



^ Take notice that the curves for precipitation (P) are drawn inverted. 



206 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. "JO 

remarked, there is a very good agreement between the variatio'ns 
of air pressure and temperature at Batavia such that the air pres- 
sure variations occur somewhat earher than the variations in tem- 
perature. From figure 71 we see that a complete agreement exists 
between the air pressure variations at Batavia and at WelHngton. 
A similar agreement with Batavia we find on the whole in the air 
pressure curve for Mauritius, but not so thorough. However, in 
the latter years after 1902, there is a tendency to march oppositely 
or with a very great displacement of phase. The air pressure in 
Antananarivo shows completely the same variations as at Mauri- 
tius. For the two last named stations there is in relation to Batavia 
so great a phase displacement, especially with regard to the air 
pressure, that the air pressure curves for these stations go generally 
in opposite direction to the curves for temperature. That the 
air pressure variations occur some months earlier on Madagascar 
and Mauritius than at the stations in India and in Java agrees also 
with Chambers' results earlier mentioned. 

We go now to the two stations in West India and find there 
less well-marked variations in air pressure and a less or even no 
agreement with the air pressure variations in the four tropical sta- 
tions of the eastern hemisphere. The air pressure curves for these 
West Indian stations show also less agreement with the temperature 
curves for the same stations. Where there is a tendency to correla- 
tion it runs in the direction of opposition. 

The air pressure variations at three stations on the American 
continent are given in figure 74. They show slight similarity with 
our tropical air pressure curves, but on the whole less marked varia- 
tions. The greatest similarity is shown by the curve for Galves- 
ton with the two curves for the West Indies, as was to be expected. 
It appears also that a certain degree of agreement exists between 
the air pressure variations in Galveston and in Washington. The 
air pressure variations in these American stations appear to be 
most opposite in their course to the temperature variations in the 
corresponding regions. In the interval from 1888 to 1902, the air 
pressure curve for Washington shows the same course as the tem- 
perature curve for this region on the whole. 

THE AIR TEMPERATURE IN STOCKHOLM 

As earlier mentioned Wallen has found several periods of short 
interval for the variations of air temperature in Stockholm. Of 
these, one is of about two years or twenty-six months. Also he 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 20/ 

finds a longer period of eleven years and one of thirty-three years 
and even one of a hundred and ten years. The eleven-year period 
he found divided into two parts with two maxima and two minima. 

In figures ']6 and 'j'j we give a comparison of the variations of 
the air temperature in Stockholm and the sun spot variations. The 
upper curve designated by t^ shows the temperature variations as 
they are exposed by consecutive smoothed means of twelve months. 
The second curve underneath designated by tj shows the tempera- 
ture variations according to consecutive means of twenty-four 
months. At the bottom is given the sun spot curve with increas- 
ing values downward. In the t^ curve there appear the biennial 
variations with a- considerable part of their amplitude. Com- 
paring this curve with the smoothed curves in which the two- 
year period is entirely eliminated one sees that a large number 
of the short variations have disappeared and in single cases one 
can see quite distinctly the great strength which the biennial 
period attained. Such observations may be made for the period 
from 1810 to 1820 or for that from 1846 to 1856 or concerning 
the relations of the middle and end of the nineties. 

In relation to the longer interval variations we will note particu- 
larly the to curves. In several cases one sees well-marked tempera- 
ture minima in these curves at times when the sun spot minima 
occurred, as for example 1844, 1855, and 1867. However the sun 
spot minimum is often long continued ; that is to say, the inflection 
in the curve which comes at the place of minimum is not particu- 
larly well-marked and not so sharp as in other cases. In these 
long-stretched-out minima one finds the temperature minimum not 
at the lowest point of the curve, but in the transition time of the 
bending of the curve towards the long minimum. This is, for 
example, the case in the years 1808, 1820, 1876, 1888, and 1899. ThC; 
temperature maximum that follows such a temperature minimum 
is apt to fall while the sun spots are yet few and have hardly de- 
parted from the minimum value. In the other cases where the sun 
spot minimum is more definite and is restricted to a shorter time 
interval the temperature maximum during the rise of the sun spot 
numbers occurs between minimum and maximum of sun spots. 
This relation is conspicuous in the years 1846, 1858, and 1868-69, 
and besides that in a couple of cases more. Generally near the time 
of sun spot maximum there is found a new temperature minimum, 
and this is indeed the case in all of the series of years which we have 
investigated, that is, from 1800 to 1910. In individual cases it hap- 



208 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 




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2IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

pens that the temperature minimum and the sun spot maximum are 
very near together as in the years 1835, 1837, and 1870. In other 
cases the temperature minimum falls somewhat after the sun spot 
maximum, and so it is for example in the years 1860-61 ; and again 
in other cases the temperature minimum falls somewhat before the 
sun spot maximum as in the year 1892. For the air temperature in 
Stockholm, in other words, a double period occurs during the sun 
spot period with a temperature minimum near the sun spot maxi- 
mum and also near the sun spot minimum. We have already re- 
peatedly called attention to a similar division of the sun spot period 
into two, but in those cases it generally happened that the tempera- 
ture maximum fell near the sun spot minimum as well as near the 
sun spot maximum. This was for example the case for the tempera- 
ture in Russia according to the Mielke-Koppen tables as already 
mentioned. 

VARIATIONS IN THE AIR TEMPERATURE IN STOCKHOLM AND IN THE 
WATER TEMPERATURE ON THE NORWEGIAN COAST 

Before going further we may refer once more to figure 53 which 
gives the temperature variations in Stockholm and those at the 
Norwegian lighthouses. We have already said that the short period 
temperature variations along the Norwegian coast and in Stockholm 
agree in many particulars. From the 5-curves of figure 53 it may 
be seen that the variations of more than a single year interval agree 
remarkably. From the C-curves of the same figure, which represent 
temperature variations smoothed by taking twenty-four-month con- 
secutive means after a first smoothing by twelve-month consecu- 
tive means, it is apparent that th^ variations which have long periods 
agree particularly well. In other words not only the short interval 
temperature variations, but also the variations which have a very 
long period are common in the water along the Norwegian coast 
and in the air temperature of Scandinavia. There is on the whole 
a displacement such that the variations in Stockholm occur some- 
what earlier than the corresponding variations on the Norwegian 
coast ; and that applies not only to the earlier mentioned short period 
variations, but even more to all variations with a long period. 
Though the variations which are to be recognized in both C-curves 
have the same general trend yet the curves are not fully parallel, 
but are somewhat displaced, so that in individual cases the dis- 
tance between the curves is somewhat greater than in other cases. 
In the years 1875 to 1885 the coast water on the Norwegian coast 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 211 

was considerably warmer than one would have expected by con- 
sideration of the temperature in Stockholm. In the following twenty 
years the coast water temperature was considerably lower than the 
temperature in Stockholm would indicate. It is possible that peri- 
odic fluctuations of long interval play a part in this, which produce 
different effects upon the coast water and upon the air temperature. 
But the variations which occur in periods of not very many years 
are quite similar. A certain agreement is found between these 
C-curves and the sun spot curves, but the eleven-year period in the 
C-curves shows the tendency to a separation into several (three or 
four) shorter periods. 

XII. THE RELATION BETWEEN METEOROLOGICAL VARIA- 
TIONS AND VARIATIONS OF SOLAR ACTIVITY 

PERIODS FOUND IN METEOROLOGICAL VARIATIONS 

The result of the meteorological investigations which we have 
thus far discussed shows that sometimes' very great agreement 
exists between stations which are far apart and situated in very 
different regions of the earth. In these discussions we have treated 
principally the variations of the curves after these have been 
smoothed by twelve-month consecutive means. These curves show 
principally the fluctuations of a few years, but they also indicate 
the longer eleven-year periods. We obtained in this way a good 
confirmation of Hildebrand's conception of the meteorological varia- 
tions in their grouping about different action spheres. 

These fluctuations in the meteorological elements which we have 
studied in different regions of the earth appear to be in a strong 
degree periodic. Particularly there appears a period of about two 
or three years in these curves most conspicuously. A correspond- 
ing period is found frequently in the curves for sun spots (see 
later fig. 95) and for prominences as well as in the disturbances of 
the magnetic elements. 

By a proper formation of means for long periods of years we 
have shown, as also have Koppen and others, that meteorological 
fluctuations of about eleven years and of about five and a half years 
occur. In other words, as we have already said, there appear to be 
periodic variations of the meteorological elements of one-quarter 
(and perhaps one-third), one-half, and a whole sun spot period 
widely distributed over the earth. One cannot resist the conclusion 
that these periods which have so close a relation to solar activity 
have great influence on the condition of the earth's atmosphere. 



212 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

THE AIR PRESSURE VARIATIONS AND THE VARIATIONS IN SOLAR 
ACTIVITY. CONFUTATION OF EARLIER AUTHORS 

As remarked above, an apparent contradiction exists among the 
results of earlier investigators with reference to the periodicity of 
air pressure variations in different regions of the earth. On the 
one hand, Chambers, Broun, Hill, Blanford and others found that 
the air pressure variations, for example in the Indo-Malayan region, 
have an eleven-year period during which the air pressure varies 
oppositely to the sun spots, while the variations occur in the same 
sense as sun spots in west Siberia, in Russia, etc. On the other 
hand both Lockyers found a three year or 3.7 year period in the air 
pressure variations in Bombay and the Indo-Malayan region in 
which the air pressure varies directly with the prominences. In 
other words the air pressure variations appear to go in these short 
periods directly as the variations of solar activity and opposite to 
the co'urse which they follow in the longer period of eleven years. 

Examining this matter more closely, we find, as remarked above, 
that the curves published by the two Lockyers (1902, p. 501) show 
not so complete an agreement between the variations of the promi- 
nences and the air pressure variations as one would have expected 
from their publication. In the period from 1880 to 1890, which 
the two Lockyers investigated, the observations of the Osserva- 
torio del Collegio Romano show three very well-marked periods in 
the prominences in the run of the eleven-year sun spot period, and 
in the same time interval there appear air pressure variations in 
Bombay with corresponding periods. But in the time after 1890 the 
Lockyers' own curves show that the air pressure in Bombay varied 
oppositely to the prominences. This appears also in our figure 71, 
where curve VIII-B indicates the air pressure variations in Bom- 
bay and the curves R and T-C show the variations in the promi- 
nences. The curves R are according to the observations of the 
Osservatoria del Collegio Romano and P-C the observations in 
Palermo and Catania (see pi. 20-S).'' While the Roman promi- 



^ In " Memorie della Societa degli Spettroscopisti Italiani " the Italian as- 
tronomers Tacchini, Ricco, and in part also Mascari, have given papers on the 
observations of the solar prominences in the observatories of Rome, Palermo 
and Catania for the years from 1871 till the present. But the observations 
extend over unequal numbers of years for the different observatories. In 
Rome the publications extend from the year 1871 to 1900; for Palermo, from 
1878 to 1893 ; and for Catania for all years since 1892. According to these 
reports we have prepared an illustration of the number of observed promi- 
nences per observation day for each month and for each observatory. It 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 2I3 

nence curve shows maxima in the years 1884 and 1887-88, which 
agree with the corresponding maxima in the air pressure curve in 
Bombay, the two prominence curves show a maximum in the year 
1892 that falls with the minimum of the air pressure in Bombay. 

The Sicilian prominence curve shows also a secondary maximum 
in the year 1897 that agrees with the minimum in the air pressure 
in Bombay. On the otner hand it shows the maximum of promi- 
nences in the years 1904 and 1905 that falls with the maximum of 
air pressure in Bombay. It is true that the two curves for promi- 
nences do not fully agree. This is partially due to individual pecu- 
liarities in the observations. At all events there are long periods of 
time when the prominence curves have very slight variations, while 
there are great variations in the corresponding meteorological varia- 
tions on the earth. 

For the sun spots, as we know, the earlier investigations showed 
no well-marked periods of several months or of a few years such 
as the prominences indicate. However, as we shall show later, more 
careful analysis brings to light such periods. It is possible that 
the solar faculae or the calcium flocculi would give a better expres- 
sion of these shorter periods in the variations of solar activity, but 
we have not had opportunity to investigate this carefully. On the 
other hand, it is a well known fact that the variations in the magnetic 
forces on the earth have a very close relation to the variations in the 

appears from this that a considerable difference exists between the observa- 
tions at the different observatories, such that, for example, the observations in 
Rome on the whole show a considerably greater number of prominences per 
day than the observations of Palermo and Catania, and they give also more 
marked variations in the periods of few years as may be seen in the curves, 
for example, figure 68, curve R. 

The values for the observed number of prominences per observational day 
we have plotted in consecutive twelve-month means in the common way and 
the values so found we have given in our curves ; for example, figure 68, where 
the curve R represents the number of prominences for the observations of the 
Roman Observatory, curve P for the observations in Palermo, and the curve C 
for the observations in Catania. In figures 71, 74 and 75 we have repeated 
these curves, R for the observations in Rome, P-C for the observations in 
Palermo and Catania combined, and curve C for the observations in Catania 
exclusively. 

Bigelow in 1908 has also given a list of prominences for each month for 
the years 1872 to 1905, but this curve we could not use since the numbers 
of prominences it showed were those of the whole months without reference 
to the number of observational days, so that the months with few days had 
few prominences even though the number of prominences at a time was large. 



214 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

solar activity, and it is possible that they may be used advan- 
tageously as a measure of it. 

In the curve M of figure 71 we have given the variations in the 
degree of disturbance (measured as the number of unquiet hours) 
of the three magnetic elements, the declination, horizontal-intensity 
and vertical-intensity at Potsdam. The degree of disturbance of the 
elements is reduced to characteristic numbers according to Eschen- 
hagen's system. The scale is given on the right. The reader will see 
that the curve shows maxima in the years 1892, 1894, 1903 and 1904, 
and 1907, when the curve for the air pressure in Bombay shows 
minima, while in the years 1890-91, 1893, 1895, and 1901, the disturb- 
ance of the magnetic elements was small when the air pressure in 
Bombay had either maxima or was relatively high. In the years 1897 
and 1898-99, on the other hand, both curves showed simultaneously 
minimum or maximum. We see from this that the agreement 
between the two curves is not complete whether one takes them 
direct or inverted. 

Going on from this to compare the curve for the prominences 
and the magnetic elements at Potsdam, with the air pressure curves 
in the other stations in the Indo-Malayan region given on figure 71, 
namely Batavia, Wellington, Mauritius, Antananarivo, we find the 
same result — that the relations are sometimes direct, sometimes in- 
verse. For example the maximum of prominences in the years 
1884 and 1885 was found simultaneously with the maximum of air 
pressure in Batavia and Wellington ; and also the minimum of promi- 
nences in the years 1889-90 finds a corresponding minimum of air 
pressure in Batavia, Wellington, Mauritius, and Antananarivo. On 
the other hand, the maximum of prominences in the magnetic curves 
for 1892 corresponds with the minimum of the four air pressure 
curves. Therefore there is a variable relation, as already found, fo'r 
the air pressure curve for Bombay. 

If we take now the air pressure variations after 1900 for Batavia 
and compare them with the magnetic curve for Potsdam we see that 
while, for example, the minimum of the magnetic curve for 1901 
corresponds with a small secondary minimum in the air pressure 
curve for Batavia, yet the maximum of the magnetic curve for 1903 
and 1904 corresponds with the minimum in the air pressure curve 
for Batavia. On the other hand, in the time about 1905-8, the two 
curves run approximately parallel. In the year 191 o, again the 
maximum of the magnetic curve corresponds to the minimum of 
the air pressure curve of Batavia, while in the year 191 1 these two 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 21 5 

curves also run in opposite directions. A comparison of the promi- 
nence curve and the air pressure of Batavia for the same interval 
of time gives about the same results except that the prominence 
curve shows no maximum in the years 1903-4 corresponding to 
the minimum of air pressure. The maximum of the magnetic 
curve in the year 19 10 corresponds to a maximum three-quarters 
of the year earlier in the prominence curve. 

In consequence of the above mentioned phase displacement of 
several months in the air pressure curves of the four stations of the 
Indo-Malayan region in relation to one another, there is some dif- 
ference betv^een the agreement or lack of agreement of these curves 
v^ith the magnetic curve or the prominence curve, but on the whole 
they show in spite of it the same relations. 

Consequently we see that, as regards the periods of a few years, 
there is no certain agreement between the air pressure variations 
and the variations in prominences as was announced by the two 
Lockyers. At certain isolated times, as we have seen, the air pres- 
sure goes directly with the prominences and at other times op- 
positely to them. The same thing is found if we compare the air 
pressure variations with the variations in the disturbance of the 
magnetic elements as observed in Potsdam. Considering Batavia 
and the Indo-Malayan region it appears as if in general they go 
oppositely to one another. 

As for the air pressure variations at the two other tropical sta- 
tions given in figure 71, namely, Port au Prince and Fort de France, 
there cannot be found here ' either any fixed rule for agreement 
between the air pressure variations and the variations in the promi- 
nences and the magnetic elements. In the most cases it appears 
that the air pressure in these stations goes directly with the promi- 
nences and magnetic elements, but with some displacement of phase. 
This shows particularly well in a comparison between the curve for 
air pressure at Fort de France (fig. 71, VI, B) and the curve for 
the disturbance of the magnetic elements at Potsdam (M). 

THE RELATION BETWEEN TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS AND 
VARIATIONS IN SOLAR ACTIVITY 

Examining now the variations in the temperature at these tropi- 
cal stations more closely we find that in consequence of the earlier 
mentioned displacement in the air pressure variations in relation to 
those of temperature, the latter behave somewhat differently with 
regard to the variations in the prominences and magnetic elements. 



2l6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

But here we find the same relation, namely : the temperature some- 
times goes directly with the curves of solar radiation and some- 
times oppositely to them. This is perhaps even more marked for 
the temperature than for the pressure variation. Take for example 
the temperature curve for Antananarivo (fig. 71, IV, T). It shows 
for the time 1887 to 1896 a remarkably direct agreement with the 
curves for prominences and magnetic elements in Potsdam, but for 
the years 1897 to 1904 the temperature curve for Antananarivo runs 
oppositely, particularly to the magnetic curve. Then after 1905 the 
curves go together for some years until again in 1910 and 1911 they 
run oppositely, and so it is with the other curves. In figure 68, 
one can compare the curves of different meteorological elements of 
Batavia for the series of years i860 to 1909 with the curves of sun 
spots and prominences, which are the lowest in the figure. We 
find here the same thing. While the c-curves (which are obtained 
by consecutive twenty-four-month means) show agreement with 
the inverted sun spot curves, so that the most distinctly well-marked 
maxima of temperature and air pressure fall upon the minima of sun 
spots, the short variations of a few years shown in the ^-curves 
(which are prepared from consecutive twelve-month means) go 
partly directly, partly oppositely with the variations of a few years 
in the prominences. 

In figure 74, at the bottom, we have given the prominences, and 
the curve M for the disturbance of the three magnetic elements in 
Potsdam. We see that a great similarity appears between the last 
mentioned curve and the topmost temperature curve for the Pacific 
coast of the United States. The temperature varies directly with 
the variations of the magnetic elements. But maximum and mini- 
mum in the magnetic curve fall before maximum and minimum in 
the temperature curve. On the other hand, the variations of the 
three other temperature curves for the United States go on the whole 
generally oppositely to the variations in the prominences and in the 
disturbance of the magnetic elements. 

In figure 75, at the bottom, we have the curves of sun spots (S) 
prominences (R, C) and the daily variation in the magnetic declina- 
tion in Christiania (M). It appears that the variations of a few 
years' period in the temperature of the water for the coast stations of 
Norway, the air temperature in all Norway, and the air temperature 
in Stockholm (II-IV) go partly direct with the variations of a few 
years in the curve of declination in Christiania ; but that the varia- 
tions in the latter occur somewhat before the variations in the tem- 
perature (see for example the waves in the magnetic curve for 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 21 7 
1881-2, 1883, 1884, 1885-86, 1893-94, I9OI, 1903, 1905-6, 1909-10). 

But there are glaring exceptions, as, for example, minimum in the 
Stockholm temperature of 1871, and maximum in all three tem- 
perature curves in the year 1878, the strong minimum in the year 
1881, the maximum 1889 to 1890, etc. In a number of these 
years there appear in the three Scandinavian curves complete agree- 
ment with the American curve V for the Atlantic region of the 
United States, but after 1898 the curves as we have already said 
go oppositely to one another. For the last named interval of time, 
it appears as we have said that the Scandinavian curves have more 
similarity with the other American curve VI for the Pacific coast, 
while these curves go oppositely to the Scandinavian curves before 
1894. 

As already remarked, Bigelow maintains that the temperature on 
the Pacific coast goes oppositely to the prominences in the eleven- 
year period, but directly with them for the short interval periods 
of about three years. This does not appear to be altogether cor- 
rect. To be sure the temperature of the Pacific region, see curve VI, 
in the two eleven-year periods between 1878 and 1900, which 
Bigelow particularly investigated, goes oppositely to the prominences 
and the sun spots. But after 1900 the temperature varies directly 
with them, which is also shown in part by the careful study of Bige- 
low's own curves, which, however, stop with the year 1905. In our 
curves, figures 74 and 75, this is better shown. The maximum in 
the year 1905 in the temperature curve for the Pacific region falls 
with the sun spot maximum in the same year, while the minimum 
some years earlier falls with the minimum of the sun spot and 
prominence curves. In the years 1910 and 191 1 the temperature on 
the Pacific coast was relatively low, when we had sun spot minima 
and prominence minima. In the periods of few years the varia- 
tions of temperature go partly directly with the prominences and 
the disturbances in the magnetic elements, but at other times op- 
positely to them in the Pacific states. 

In the middle United States and in the most easterly states, 
Bigelow is of the opinion, as we have said above, that in the eleven- 
year period, as in the period of three years, the temperature goes 
oppositely and the air pressure directly as the prominences and the 
disturbances in the magnetic elements. This is, as we have seen, 
partly correct, but there are many exceptions when the variations 
go oppositely to those which Bigelow would predict, and these are 
apparent from his own curves as well. 

IS 



2l8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN DIFFERENT MONTHS 
OF THE YEAR IN BATAVIA 

We have already shown that earlier investigators found a differ- 
ence between summer and winter as to the eleven-year periodical 
variations of the meteorolo'gical elements. For example, Blanford's 
curves for air pressure in Siberia and Russia indicate that these go 
directly with the sun spots during winter and oppositely to the air 
pressure variations in India, while in summer they agree with the 
latter and go oppositely with the sun spots. The two Lockyers 
found also for different stations that the air pressure goes differently 
in relation to the prominences in summer and winter. 

It would be therefore of great interest to study the eleven-year 
variations in the meteorological elements for each month of the 
year at different stations. Figure 78 gives curves of variations 
of the temperature (t) and the air pressure (P) in Batavia for 
each month of the year (curves I to XII). They are smoothed first 
by consecutive two-year and then three-year means, that is to say, 
according to the formula t = ^(a + 2b + 2c + d). The curves A indi- 
cate the corresponding values for temperature and air pressure 
for the whole year and the lowest curve S*is the curve of relative 
sun spot numbers. It may be seen that in all these curves there is 
a great similarity, and that the variations on the whole for all the 
months go in the same direction, and show agreement with the 
inverted sun spot curve, although with some irregularities. The 
variations are generally more marked in the winter months and least 
marked in the summer months (VI to VIII). The air pressure 
curves run on the whole in pretty good agreement with the curves for 
the temperature, but as earlier mentioned with a displacement of 
phase ; that is to say, the variations of the air pressure come earlier 
than the variations of temperature. At special times there occurred 
great differences, so that the air pressure curve may even go op- 
positely to the temperature curve, as for example in December 
and January and partly also February for the years 1883 to 1886, 
for February and March, 1895 to 1906, and at other times, but a 
fixed rule can hardly be laid down in this respect. It appears for 
example, that the air pressure in December has a tendency to go 
oppositely to the temperature variations, but the result for the year 
in spite of this is as curve A shows a quite good agreement between 
variations in air pressure and variations in temperature, and these 
curves show further, as already said, a quite good agreement with 
the sun spot curve. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 219 




Figure 78. Anomalies of the air temperature (t) and of the air pressure 
(B) in Batavia for each month of the year (I to XII) for the whole year (A) 
in combined two- and three-year smoothing. S : relative sun spot numbers. 



220 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO) 

It may be seen that all these curves have a tendency to show a 
division of the eleven-year period into two or three parts, and this 
in spite of the two-year and three-year consecutive smoothings. 

THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN DIFFERENT MONTHS OF THE 
YEAR IN FORT DE FRANCE 

In figure 79 we give for the different months of the year (I to XII) 
as well as for the whole year (A) curves for temperature (0 and 
air pressure (B) at Fort de France which are smoothed in the same 
way as the curves of the previous figure. The temperature curves 
show, as the reader will see, a very good agreeement for all months 
as well as for the whole year with the inverted sun spot curve S 
which is at the bottom of the figure ; but in almost all months, par- 
ticularly in the autumn, the winter and spring months, and least 
in the months of July, August, and November, there is a marked 
tendency to a two-fold division of the eleven-year sun spot period. 
A tendency to such division into two. is even shown in the sun 
spot curve itself, but it comes much plainer to expression in the 
inverted consecutive three years mean smoothed curve for the dis- 
turbance of the three magnetic elements in Potsdam (M). 

The curves for the air pressure in Fort de France show less 
simultaneous agreement for the different months. On the whole 
they go for the most part inverted to the temperature curves, and 
therefore directly to the sun spot curve, and this is also indicated 
in the air pressure curve for the whole year, curve A. The minimum 
for the air pressure curve falls here in about the middle between 
maximum and minimum of sun spots. The tendency of the air 
pressure to inverted course with respect to the temperature is most 
marked in the summer months, and especially in June to August; 
while in the winter months from November to February or March 
the variations of air pressure have almost the same course as the 
temperature variations. Also in the air pressure curves there is 
shown a tendency to a secondary division of the eleven-year sun 
spot period. 

THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN DIFFERENT MONTHS OF THE 
• YEAR IN STOCKHOLM 

As an example of the temperature variations in different months 
in high latitudes we give in figure 80 the temperature curves for 
Stockholm for each month of the year (I to XII) and for the whole 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 221 



le^Z 1895 169* 1895 I89f> 1897 /80S /399 1900 1901 1902 i90i 190'/ 19 Oi igOb 1907 1908 1909 




Figure 79. Anomalies of the air temperature (t) and the pressure (B) at 
Fort _de France for each month (I to XII) and for the whole year (A) by 
combined two- and three-year smoothing. M: degree of disturbance of the 
three magnetic elements in Potsdam in consecutive three-year smoothing 
(Scale on the right). S: relative sun spot numbers, scale on the left. 



■222 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



year (A). The temperature values have been subjected to a com- 
bined two- and three-years' smoothing. iVt the to'p is the curve S for 
the smoothed mean of the sun spot relative numbers according to 
Wolfer. The curves show a considerable difference in temperature 
variations between summer and winter. The variations are great- 
est in the winter months, December, January, and February, and go 
then in great measure (particularly in January) oppositely to the 
variations of the sun spots. At certain times, as for example, be- 
tween 1841 and 1853, curves for February and March run almost 
oppositely to the curve for January and directly with the curve for 




Figure 8o. Anomalies of the air temperature in Stockholm for each month 
(I to XII) and for* the whole year (A) in combined two- and three-year 
smoothing. S: relative numbers of the sun spots (scale on the right). 

sun spots, and this occurs also in part for the curves for April, 
May, June, and July. In the years of the interval 1864 to about 
1875 the curve for January and also in a slight degree the curve for 
December goes partly directly with the sun spot curve, while on the 
other hand the curve for February runs oppositely. In most years, 
after 1841, the curve for March runs directly with the sun spot 
curve. After 1885, the curve for April goes directly with the sun 
spot curve.'' Most curves show a tenedency to the already mentioned 
double division of the eleven-year period. 



^Krogness, as stated above, has found the same for the temperature in 
Norway in the later periods, namely, that in January it goes oppositely to the 
magnetic storminess in Christiania and in March-April and also in part kt 
July it goes directly with it. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 223 



We see here also, what we have hitherto often found, that no gen- 
eral rule can be laid down. Some parts of the curve go with the 
sun spot curve and others oppositely to it. It is the cufves for 
the winter months which lend to the curve of the year its dis- 
tinctive character. We see that until about 1853 this curve Went 
generally oppositely to the sun spot curve, but after this time it 
went at least as much directly with the sun spot curve. 

In figure 81 we give values obtained in the same way by combined 
two-year and three-year consecutively smoothed means for Stock- 
18IO 1820 I8i0 I8t0 1850 I860 /8'/U 1880 1890 1900 1910 




Figure 81. Anomalies of the air temperature in Stockholm and Batavia 
for February, July, and for the whole year in combined two- and three-year 
smoothing. 

holm for February, for July, and for the whole year, in comparison 
with the sun spot curve. It is clearly shown here that the curve 
for July goes to a great degree opposite to the curve for February,, 
while this latter in general goes inverted to the sun spot curve, but 
partly also directly with it. The curve for February has the great- 
est similarity to the yearly curve. 

In the same figure we give also curves obtained in the same way 
by smoothing the temperature at Batavia for February, July, and 



224 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



the whole year. It is interesting to see that these curves are partly 
similar to the curves for Stockholm and partly opposite to them. 
The February curves show for the time after 1890 quite good agree- 
ment. On the whole the two monthly curves for Batavia agree 
with one another a good deal better than the corresponding curves 
for Stockholm. 



1880 



1890 



1900 



1910 




Figure 82. Anomalies of the surface temperature at the Norwegian light- 
houses, Torrungen, Utsire, Heliso, and Ona for January, April, July, October, 
and the year in consecutive three-year smoothing and for April (the lowest 
curve) in combined two- and three-year smoothing. 

THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE DIFFERENT SEASONS IN THE 
COAST WATER OF NORWAY 

In figure 82 we give the three-yearly consecutively smoothed 
temperature curves for the four lighthouse stations, Torungen, 
Utsire, Heliso, and Ona on the Norwegian coast for January, April, 
July, and October, and for the whole year. At the bottom of the 
figure we give the sun spot curve with increasing scale numbers 
upwards and the temperature curve for April for the four stations 
after combining by two-year and three-year smoothing. We see 
that the curves for four months and the whole year are in good 
agreement up to the year 1890. But after this time the curves for 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 225 

January and for October go in opposite direction to the curves for 
April and July, and in a similar way behave also the curves with 
reference to the sun spot curve. They run in the same direction 
up to about the year 1890, but after this time the curves for October 
and January generally go opposite to those of the sun spots. The 
curve for July shows, however, a disagreement in its high maximum 
in the year 1900. The combined two- and three-yearly smoothed 
curve for April shows as the reader will see great agreement with 
the sun spot curve. 

THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN DIFFERENT MONTHS OF THE 
■YEAR IN THE INTERIOR OF ASIA 

It would obviously be of great interest to observe the variations of 
temperature in different months of the year in the interior of the 
Eurasian continent, where such extreme conditions with highly 
developed air pressure maximum in winter and great air pressure 
minimum in 'summer prevail. In order to save time we have in 
this investigation confined ourselves preliminarily to the series of 
temperature anomalies given by Abbot and Fowle, which they call 
values for northern Asia. For each month of the year in the time 
interval from 1876 to 1903, the temperature values published are 
the average anomalies for the following seven stations : Barnaul, 
Irgis, Irkutstk, Kisil-Avat, Nertschinsk, Peking and Taschkent. 

Unfortunately these meteorological stations are not ideally chosen 
for our purpose since they lie in different action spheres. One must 
assume that stations like Peking would have very different varia- 
tions from stations like Taschkent and Barnaul, since they lie re- 
spectively on the eastward and westward sides of the action center 
with high pressure in winter and low pressure in summer. ^Lacking 
better observational material, we may, however, draw preliminary 
conclusions from the run of the temperatures in the interior of this 
great continent. 

In figure 83 we give the curves for the temperature variations for 
each month at these stations (I to XII) smoothed to the formula 
b = l(a + :ib + c)iov the time from 1876 to 1903. Furthermore, 
we give the curve W for the temperature variations for the three 
winter months, December, January, and February, and the curve 
SO for the temperature variations for the summer months, June, 
July, and August, as well as the curve J for the entire year. 

As we should expect, the curves give very great difference in the 
temperature variations in the different months. Particularly is the 



226 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



difference remarkable between the winter months and the summer 
months, when the variations run on the whole oppositely to one 
another. On these grounds the curve for the entire year (J) shows 
relatively small fluctuations, since the variations in the different 
.parts of the year go in opposition. But it is remarkable that even 
within the winter months the variations do not simultaneously agree. 




Figure 83. Anomalies of the air temperature in the interior of Asia for 
each month of the year (I to XII), for the three winter months (W), for 
the three summer months (SO), and for the whole year (J). P: prominences 
according to the observations in Rome and Catania. S : sun spots. All the 
curves are smoothed according to the formula b^ l(a -{- 2b -^ c) . 

For example, the variations in February and partially also those 
in March tend to go oppositely to the variations in January and 
also in December and partly even in November. 

Taking now these temperature curves for different months to- 
gether with the curve for the prominences and sun spots (curves P 
and S at the bottom of the figure), we find that in the first sun spot 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 22/ 



1900 




Figure 84. Anomalies of the surface temperatures at Liepe's station I (47° 
north 6° west) for each month (I to XII) and for the whole year (A) in 
combined two- and three-year smoothing. S : sun spots. 



228 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

period from 1878 to 1889 the temperature variations in the months 
December and January (see also the winter curve W) goes directly 
with the curve for the sun spots and the prominences. In the curves 
for December and January (probably in February, and see also the 
curve for October) we find even the three shorter periods in the 
prominence curve with small maxima in the years 1881 to 1882, 
1884, and 1887. In the same sun spot period, 1878 to 1889, the 
run of the temperature curves for the summer months goes approxi- 
mately inverted to the sun spot curve and the prominence curve. 
For the next sun spot period, 1889 to 1901, on the other hand, the 
agreement between the temperature curves and the sun spot and 
prominence curves is much less regular. The curve for the winter 
months shows a minimum corresponding to the maximum of sun 
spots and prominences in the year 1893 and the curves for Novem- 
ber, December, and January have furthermore a remarkable maxi- 
mum in the years 1897 to 1898 that is particularly well marked in 
the January curve and that has nothing corresponding to it in the 
prominences and sun spot curves. The temperature curve SO 
for the three summer months runs generally reverse to the sun spot 
curve and the prominence curve. It is very noticeable that this 
summer curve is much more similar to the yearly curve than the 
winter curve W is. The cause of this is that the temperatures in 
March-April and November with their great variations are for 
the most part inverted to the winter temperature. 

THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN DIFFERENT MONTHS OF THE 
YEAR AT LIEPe's STATION ONE 

In figure 84 we give the curves for each month of the anomalies 
of the surface temperature after combining by two- and three-years 
smoothing of Liepe's station I. We see that the variations in 
the surface temperature in this most easterly part of the Atlantic 
Ocean run almost exactly in the same direction in the different months 
of the year. Besides, we have a great similarity with the variations 
of the sun spots, particularly in the spring months up to June, when 
the temperature minimum, as the reader will see, goes almost exactly 
coincident with the minimum of the sun spots, while the maximum is 
in part one or two years after the sun spot maximum. In the other 
months the temperature minimum also falls with the sun spot mini- 
mum fairly well, while the temperature maximum in part is several 
years after the maximum of spots. Particularly in the months, June 
to November, there is such a strongly marked tendency to a divi- 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 229 



sion into two of the eleven-year sun spot period, that the latter 
of the two maxima is gradually, in the run of the months, developed 
into a principal maximum, and falls several years later than the 
maximum of sun spots, while the first maximum is in these months 
about coincident with the sun spot maximum. 

1895 1900 



STA7 
I 




m 



N 



]Z} 



vn 



Figure 85. Yearly anomalies of the surface temperature at Liepe's stations 
I to VIII in combined two-and three-year smoothing. S : sun spots two- and 
three-year smoothing. P : anomalies of the air-pressure differences between 
30° north 30° west and Sao Thiago in combined two- and three-year smoothing. 

HALVING OF THE ELEVEN-YEAR PERIOD AT LIEPE's STATIONS 

We see here also a similar halving of the eleven-year sun spot 
period such as we found in the surface temperature of the North 
Atlantic Ocean and at different meteorological stations (see figs. 69, 



230 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 70 

78, 79, and others). This halving has been noted by many others, 
both for temperature and for the precipitation (see Hellmann, 
Johansson and others as above mentioned). It is exactly this halv- 
ing of the eleven-year perio'd which Wallen noted so distinctly in 
the water level of the great Swedish lakes. 

It would be interesting to investigate how the other stations of 
Liepe behave in regard to this, since they extend over a great region 
from north of the Azores maximum far toward the south. We 
have obtained by combining two- and three-years' smoothing the 
yearly means for all stations of Liepe, and we give them. in the 
curves of figure 85 together with the sun spot curve which is 
smoothed in the same way. The figure shows a remarkable de- 
velopment southwards accompanied by a moderating of the extremes. 
In the first four stations the variations are strongly marked, while 
for the southern stations V to VIII they are small, and for the most 
extreme southerly station VIII they are almost zero. This appears 
to be quite simply explained by the air pressure distribution, which 
we shall later discuss. The halving of the eleven-year period is 
most strongly marked for the more northern stations and southerly 
to station IV. At stations V and VI there is a division into' three, 
which is partially traceable in the most southerly stations. 

In order to get another picture of the development at the series 
of stations, we have taken, in figure 86, the values for the strongest 
maximum and minimum years of sun spots, which we have col- 
lected in three curves at the top for the two minimum years 1890 
and 1902 and at the bottom for the maximum year 1894, so that 
these curves show the geographical distribution of the anomalies 
during the extremes of the solar activity. There is found a very 
interesting difference. In the minimum years the curves rise from 
the most northerly toward the most southerly station, whereas in 
the maximum year they sink. In both cases the anomalies are 
greatest at the northerly station and smallest at the southerly. On 
the whole there is a good agreement between the variations of 
temperature and of sun spots, except for the two most southerly 
stations where the relation is generally inverted. 

A CONCLUSION 

The principal result of our investigations on the relation between 
the variations in the solar activity and the variations in the tempera- 
ture of the earth is therefore that there is a close connection between 
these two, but the variations in the solar a^^tivity have not at all 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 23 1 

times the same action upon the temperature of the earth even at the 
same place. In all the regions of the earth which we have investi- 
gated the variations of meteorological elements go at times parallel 
with those of the sun spots, the prominences, or the disturbance of 
magnetic elements, and then with sudden change for a number of 
years proceed oppositely and perhaps then return for another long 
period of years to parellelism again. This follows also for the 
shorter periods of a few years, as well as for the longer eleven- 
year periods. 

Furthermore • we have found that in places which are near to- 
gether, and in the same action sphere, as for example Bombay and 
Wellington, the temperature variations during a long period of 
years may-go directly opposite to one another. 



w sm 




/S02 



Figure 86. The distribution of temperature anomalies at Liepe's eight 
stations at sun spot minimum in 1890 and 1902 and in sun spot maximum in 
1804. 



NO DIRECT CONNECTION BETWEEN VARIATIONS IN THE SOLAR 

RADIATION AND TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS ON 

THE earth's surface 

Although plainly the temperature variations of the earth must 
depend on variations of the solar activity, yet from what has been 
said it must be clearly borne in mind that the variations of the solar 
radiation are not the direct cause of the variations of the air tem- 
perature at the earth's surface and the variations on the surface 
temperature of the ocean. 

• As already mentioned, it has been suggested that the temperature 
variations depend on variations in the frequency of clouds in the 
earth's atmosphere or in the formation of ozone in the higher layers 
of the atmosphere (called the stratosphere) depending directly on 
variations of the solar activity and changes in the relations between 
the incoming and outgoing radiation of the earth. In case this is 



232 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

correct there must plainly be great and sudden changes in the daily 
and yearly temperature amplitude at different parts of the earth 
and particularly we must expect that these will be most strongly 
marked in the tropics. But the investigations which we have 
summarized of the daily temperature amplitudes in several tropical 
stations show no secure indication that this is the case. 

Only at Antananarivo and Fort de France the combined curves 
of daily amplitude which we have collected show considerable varia- 
tions. The curve for the first named station (fig. 71, IV, T-A) 
shows no marked similarity with the sun spot curve or the promi- 
nence curve. To be sure it has a maximum between 1892 and 
1895 that may have a certain similarity to the sun spot maximum, 
but its most conspicuous minima in 1891 and 1897, as well as the 
rise from 1897 to a maximum in the year 1908 and 1909, have little 
similarity to either the curves of sun spots or of prominences and 
just as little with the magnetic curves. The whole appearance of the 
curve is indeed very exceptional. 

The curve for the temperature amplitude in Fort de France 
(fig. 71, VI, T-A) has more similarity with the curves of sun spots 
and prominences, having a minimum in the year 1900 and a rise in 
the years after. The maximum comes in the year 1907, that is, in 
the last year of sun spot maximum and exactly in that year when 
the prominences reached their maximum. In the earlier sun spot 
period the maximum of temperature amplitude falls between 1893 
and 1894 very well with the sun spot maximum, but in this period 
there is a secondary maximum in the year 1897, and the sun spot 
period is therefore divided into two parts, a phenomenon which 
we have already often observed. A corresponding minimum we 
find also in the precipitation curve for 1897. It has the appear- 
ance as if in these cases there is really an increase in the daily 
temperature amplitude with simultaneous increase of sun spots. 

At the other tropical stations which we have investigated, we 
can find, however, no well marked dependence between the sun 
spot curve and the curve for the daily amplitude. We have already 
spoken of this in regard to Batavia (see fig. 68). We find there 
that the daily amplitude increases with decreasing cloudiness, as is 
natural. The less the prevailing cloudiness the greater is the out- 
going radiation and consequently the greater the amplitude of the 
temperature. We find also that the curve for the daily amplitude 
rises and falls about simultaneously with the temperature curve 
and the curve for the air pressure. That the latter would be the 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 233 



case could also be expected, going- on the assumption that a higher 
air pressure corresponds to a more cloudless sky. Any indica- 
tion from this that the daily temperature amplitude in Batavia 
increases with increasing sun spots and prominences we do not 
find. 

The daily temperature amplitude curve of Wellington (fig. 71, 
II, T-A) does not show anything definite. The curve appears to 
be somewhat irregular and shows a remarkable rise during the 
whole time from 1883 to 1905. This rise is, however, similar to a 
rise of the temperature curve for Batavia. It corresponds to a 
general decrease of the number of prominences from 1883, which 
is plainly shown in figure 69. 

/.?''J 1910 




Figure 87. Difference between mean maxima and mean minima of tem- 
perature in degrees F. at Arequipa in July (I), February (II), and for all 
the year (III). IV: yearly mean of the difference between the temperatures 
at two o'clock and eight o'clock afternoon. 

The curve for the daily temperature amplitude in Mauritius 
(fig. 71, III, T-A) also shows similarity with the air pressure curve, 
in so far as it has the same partial maxima that are found in the 
latter, and this could be expected according to what we have said 
above, in case a higher air pressure corresponds with a cloudless 
sky. However, there is no great similarity between this curve 
and the temperature curve for Mauritius and just as little with 
the sun spot curve. 

At Port au Prince the curve of daily temperature amplitude 
(fig. 71, V, T-A) also shows similarity with the air pressure curve, 
in so far that they have at least partially the same maxima, but 
any great similarity with the temperature curve is not to be found 
and just as little with the sun spot curve, except that from 1900 to 
1910 possibly the two go oppositely. 

It may be thought, however, that at an inland station of the 
tropics the daily temperature amplitude would respond more directly 
16 



234 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

to solar changes, and therefore we have studied the published tem- 
perature data of Arctowski (1912). Here we have collected data 
for curves which show the variations of temperature amplitude 
(in Fahrenheit degrees) in February, July, and for the whole year 
in Arequipa,' Peru (fig. 87). We find in February, which is in the 
southern summer, a well-marked maximum about the year 1905, 
but the stro'ngly-marked minimum in 1907 that is found in all 
curves of the amplitude of this station does not fall in with the 
sun spot curve or with the prominence curve which has its maxi- 
mum in this year. 

If it should be objected that we are dealing here with another 
doubling of the sun spot period, it must be taken into account that 
this minimum in the year 1907 was considerably lower than the 
minimum in the years 1900 to 1902, when the sun spot minimum 
prevailed. At all events the agreement between the curves of tem- 
perature amplitude and the sun spot curve at this station is not 
good enough to base any considerable conclusion upon it. 

THE YEARLY AMPLITUDE OF THE TEMPERATURE IN NORTH AMERICA 

If great variations in the relation between the incoming radia- 
tion and the outgoing radiation of the earth take place from year 
to year, one would expect that these would be particularly noticeable 
in the inner parts of great continents, where the difference between 
winter and summer temperatures is great, since there the summer 
temperature is more strongly influenced by the incoming radiation 
and the winter temperature by the outgoing radiation. We have 
therefore examined the yearly amplitude, that is to say, the tem- 
perature difference between the warmest and coldest parts of the 
year, in four different regions of the United States. The result 
is given in curves I to IV of figure 88. It will be seen that the 
fluctuation on the Pacific coast (the Pacific states curve I) is 
considerably more regular than in the other three regions, and it 
goes for the most part oppositely to these. At the bottom of the 
figure are the curves S and P for sun spots and prominences, the 
latter according to observations at Rome and Catania. The reader 
will see that there is no distinct agreement between the four curves 
of yearly amplitude and these curves. The two temperature curves, 
II and III, show marked minima in the year 1890 which in curve 
IV is displaced to 1891. This is simultaneous with the minimum 
in the sun spots and the prominences. But on the other hand in 
the years 1901 and 1902 there is no corresponding marked mini- 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 235 

mum in the temperature amplitude, although there is some indica- 
tion of it in the curve IV for the interior states. This curve shows 
besides the halving of the eleven-year sun spot period with a mini- 
mum in the neighborhood of the sun spot minimum (see in this con- 
nection the years 1891 and 1902) and a minimum in the neighborhood 
of the sun spot maximum (compare the years 1884 and 1906) or 
at least near the middle of the eleven-year period (see 1896). In 
the last period, 1902 to 1913, there was a middle minimum so much 



mo 



13/P 




Figure 88. Temperature differences (in degrees Centigrade) between the 
warmest and coolest months of the year in four regions of the United States 
of America. I : in the most westerly states on the Pacific Coast. II : in the 
states on the Mexican Gulf. Ill : in the most easterly states on the Atlantic 
Coast. IV: in the inner states. 



deeper than the others that at this period the curve IV- on the whole 
goes oppositely to the sun spot curve. 

In the curves II and III for the Gulf states and for the Atlantic 
coast states there is an indication of a similar halving of the eleven- 
year period, with some displacement of phase. 

For these four regions of the United States we have also studied 
the variations of the average temperatures for the summer and for 
the winter. As representing the winter we have used the months 
December, January, and February, and for the summer, June, July, 



22f> 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



and August. In figure 89 the weak lines show the variations in the 
average winter temperature. These are marked W and are drawn 
full. The summer temperature is given by the dotted lines marked 
S. The heavy lines S-W show the variations in the difference 



IRSO 




Figure 89. Temperature anomalies of the three summer months (curves 
S), the three winter months (curves W), and the difference between these 
anomahes for summer and winter (curves S-W). The lowest curve indicates 
the yearly mean of the daily number of prominences (P) according to observa- 
tions in Rome and Catania, and for the relative sun spot numbers (SF). 

between the temperatures of winter and summer. It is striking 
how much less the summer temperature varies on the whole from 
year to year than the winter temperature. It may be seen that 
the variations in both summer and winter temperature and in the 
difference between them are considerably less for the Pacific coast 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 237 

(curves I) than for the other three regions (curves II to IV) and 
that here as in other relations before mentioned the variations on 
the Pacific coast are on the whole inverted to the variations of the 
other regions. 

Since the w^inter temperature varies more than the summer tem- 
perature the curves (as the difference between them shows) are 
determined mostly by the winter temperatures. Hence the different 
curves on the whole give an inverted picture of the curve of winter 
temperatures. 

We can now compare these various temperature curves with the 
curves for sun spots (SF) and prominences (P) at the bottom 
of the figure. In the Pacific region (curve I) where, as we have 
said, the variations are small, it seems as if the winter temperature 
is especially low in the neighborhood of sun spot minimum, par- 
ticularly 1890, 1910 and 1913. On the other hand, the difference 
between the temperature in summer and winter at these times was 
relatively great, but the variations are all so small and irregular 
that nothing is to be concluded from them. In the other regions 
there is a quite distinct agreement between the temperature rela- 
tions in the two typical year seasons and the sun spot variations. 
It appears that in the neighborhood of the sun spot minimum, as 
well as of sun spot maximum, there is a relatively high winter 
temperature and consequently a relatively small difference between 
summer and winter temperatures. There is furthermore an indi- 
cation of a halving of the sun spot period as we have found earlier. 
It comes to view most clearly in the curves III S-W and IV S-W. 

INCOMING AND OUTGOING RADIATION — DUST AND CLOUD FORMATION 

Our investigations do not appear to support the assumption that 
variations in the temperature of the earth which accompany the sun 
spot period depend directly on variations in the relation between 
incoming and outgoing radiation of such a nature that the outgoing 
radiation at sun spot minimum is diminished and the temperature 
of the earth on this account increased. If this was correct we 
should certainly have found it more definitely indicated in our curves 
than we have done. 

If the temperature variations at the earth's surface are caused by 
cosmic dust or volcanic ash in the atmosphere or by formation of 
clouds (called forth perhaps by variations in atmospheric pressure, 
which would be particularly active to diminish the temperature at the 
tro'pics), the solar radiation which reaches the earth would be dimin- 



238 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

ished. Hence we should expect that the temperature amplitude 
would have the tendency to diminish at times of minimum mean 
temperature ; for the heat which is communicated to the surface 
of the earth by the sun rays would vary more than the outgoing 
radiation, although this also would be diminished by the formation 
of clouds and by dust in the atmosphere. But any marked diminu- 
tion in the daily or yearly amplitude of the temperatures at minimum 
of mean air temperature is in general not to be found in our curves 
or at least not to be found in that degree which would be expected. 

PROOF OF THE FAILURE OF BLANFORD's HYPOTHESIS SHOWN BY 
OBSERVATIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN 

We have already remarked that the direct observations do not 
support Blan ford's hypothesis, namely, that in consequence of great 
solar radiation at sun spot maximum the surface of the ocean is 
warmer than at sun spot minimum, and therefore increased evapora- 
tion produces greater cloudiness and more precipitation over the 
land which finally produces lower temperatures. We will now take 
up this point more in detail. 

' According to the observations which the Dutch have published for 
two 10° squares in the Indian Ocean between o° and io° north 
latitude and between 70° and 90° east longitude, we have drawn the 
curves in figure 90 for the anomalies of surface temperature (WT) 
for the two fields combined (curves III and VIII) also for the 
curves for the air temperature (T) fo'r the same two ten degree 
squares (curves IV and IX), also the curves for the wind velocity 
(W), expressed according to Beaufort's scale without regard to 
the direction. These are curves VI and XI with scales inverted. 
Finally we give curves for the cloudiness (N), the curves VII and 

XII also with inverted scales. On the same figure at the top we 
have given in curves I and II the temperature (T) and the air 
pressure (P) in Mauritius and at the bottom of figure the curves 

XIII to XV for the air temperature (T), the air pressure (P), and 
wind velocity (W) for Batavia. 

We see from this figure that the variations in the surface tem- 
perature and the air temperature in these parts of the Indian Ocean 
follow one another closely and show also a great agreement with 
the variations of the air temperature of Mauritius and Batavia. 
There are a few exceptions, as for instance, that the maximum in the 
air temperature of Mauritius in the year 1908 does not appear in 
the curves for the two 10° squares in the Indian Ocean, nor does it 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 239 




MAOftlTIUS 

70-7dT. 

w.m. 

1610 
760-5 
7600 

50% 
55 

mm. 

760-S 
760-0 
7595 



\60 

BATAVIA. 

mm. 

\0-5 



-05 



Figure 90. Curves for the two 10° squares (the Dutcli tables, see above) in 
the Indian Ocean and for Mauritius and Batavia. T : air temperature. WT : 
surface temperature. B : air pressure. W : wind velocity. N : cloudiness. 
All values are consecutive twelve-month means. 



240 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

occur in Batavia. The curves for the air pressure (P) for the two 
ocean fields agree nicely with the air pressure curve for Batavia, 
but not so completely with the air pressure curve for Mauritius. 
There appears a displacement such as we have already mentioned, 
and such as was noted by Chambers also, so that the variations in 
the further western regions occur earlier than those in the more 
eastern regions. The variations in the ocean fields are almost simul- 
taneous with the variations in Batavia, but they are considerably 
later than the variations in Mauritius. 

The curves for wind velocity (W) and cloudiness (N) show less 
marked agreement. The wind velocity varies on the whole (par- 
ticularly in the most easterly of the two ocean fields) oppositely to 
the temperature. High wind velocities appear to accompany rela- 
tively low temperatures. Particularly in the most eastern ocean 
field, the variations in the wind velocity come somewhat before 
the variations of the temperature. The cloudiness appears to have 
a tendency in this field to go oppositely to the temperature and air 
pressure. But the variations in the cloudiness occur somewhat 
before the corresponding temperature variations, so that low cloudi- 
ness occurs before high temperature and vice versa. 

The surprisingly good agreement between the variations in the 
meteorological elements in these ocean fields and the variations in 
the same meteorological elements over the land stations seems to 
prove definitely that no such opposite relationship between the varia- 
tions of the ocean and the variations of the land exists as Blanford's 
theory assumes. These fields reach so far throughout the Indian 
Ocean that we must conclude that they represent the true oceanic 
relations. 

We find on the whole that the different theories which we have 
mentioned above for the explanation for the variations of the tem- 
perature of the earth are scarcely in agreement with the results of 
our investigations either for the short period variations or for the 
longer period variations of eleven years. We must therefore seek 
elsewhere for a satisfactory explanation of these fluctuations. 

A COMMON ERROR OF EARLIER AUTHORS 

The error, according to our thought, which the most of the 
earlier authors have fallen into in their considerations of the pos- 
sible cause of the temperature variations of the earth consists in that 
they have assumed that variations of the average temperature for the 
surface of the whole earth should act as a kind of a measure of the 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 24I 

variations in the solar emission of radiation itself, or in the solar 
radiation which is received at the earth's surface. They have not 
given proper weight to the consideration that a very great part of 
this radiation is absorbed in the higher layers of the atmosphere and 
that the distribution of temperature in the atmosphere of the earth 
plays a great and perhaps the greatest part in determining the tem- 
perature of the surface of the earth. 

But this distribution of temperature in the atmosphere is in a 
high degree dependent upon the circulation of the atmosphere itself, 
and this again is dependent on the thermal emission of radiation of 
the sun, and perhaps also on other forms of energy radiation. 

Because he did not consider the role of the circulation and tem- 
perature distribution in all the layers of the atmosphere an investi- 
gator like Newcomb has, for instance, according to our thought, 
fallen into an erroneous consideration of the problem. He maintains 
(1908, p. 382) that since the prevalence of magnetic storms shows 
that the " magnetic radiation " from the sun at maximum of sun 
spots is greatest (and therefore at the time when the terrestrial 
temperature is lowest) this gives ground for the assumption that the 
thermal action of the " magnetic radiation " is too small to have any 
direct influence on the observed meteorological phenomena. He 
thinks that on this account the magnetic, electrical and radio-active 
radiation of the sun can be completely left out of account. 

The conclusion to which Newcomb (1908, p. 387) comes concern- 
ing the action of changes in the " solar constant " on the temperature 
of the surface of the earth seems also inadmissible. He believes 
the changes which are observed in high latitudes are not available 
to determine anything in relation to the changes in the solar activity, 
since such solar changes should first make themselves felt in the 
tropics. Therefore in case changes of the temperature in higher 
latitudes are greater than the changes in the tropics, they cannot be 
caused by variations in the solar activity itself, because this would 
obviously have the greatest effect in the vicinity of the equator. 

He seems here to forget that the variations in the solar activity and 
in the " solar constant " (and also in the electrical radiation of the 
sun) are primarily afifecting the higher layers of the air, and thereby 
altering the atmospheric circulation, not only in these higher layers, 
but also in the lower parts of the atmosphere. This can alter the 
temperatures of regions of higher latitude more than those of the 
tropics where the conditions are so stable. 



242 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

EVAPORATION AND TEMPERATURE 

According to our thought, erroneous views have also often been 
entertained on precipitation and evaporation. Authors have as- 
sumed that increased radiation and consequently increased tempera- 
ture in the atmosphere must always correspond to increased evapora- 
tion and therefore increased precipitation. This is, however, not 
the case. Increased precipitation must, to be sure, on the whole ac- 
company increased evaporation of the surface of the ocean or the sur- 
face of the land. Increased evaporation again one might think must 
be accompanied by increased temperature, but this is not always 
the case. Evaporation of the surface, whether of the ocean or of 
the land, is obviously dependent not only on the temperature, but 
also on the vertical and horizontal circulation of the atmosphere. 
Suppose there is little movement prevailing in the atmosphere, and 
its temperature is besides relatively high, and higher or at least not 
appreciably lower, than the temperature of the surface of the 
ocean. Under these circumstances, even if the temperature of 
both air and ocean were relatively high, there would be compara- 
tively small evaporation since the air layers nearest the ocean sur- 
face would be very quickly saturated. Not being warmer than the 
air layers immediately above them they would not rise, but would lie 
upon the ocean and hinder further evaporation. On this account 
the evaporation can be relatively small at very high temperatures. 
This is exactly the condition which often occurs in summer when 
the air temperature is as high or even higher than the surface 
temperature. 

If on the other hand the ocean surface is considerably warmer 
than the air, then even if there was not very great circulation in the 
atmosphere itself, vertical convection would arise in these conditions. 
The lowest air layer would be warmed and rise to greater heights 
and would be displaced by new layers which would in turn be loaded 
with moisture, and the evaporation would go on relatively fast even 
if no other motion of the air prevailed. That is the condition which 
occurs during the colder parts of the year very generally. It also 
happens that at these times a strong horizontal motion of the atmos- 
phere prevails, so that one must assume that the evaporation at such 
times is quite considerable, and probably greater than that in the 
average of the warmest part of the year. Certainly the precipita- 
tion in winter is on the whole greater than that of summer. Also 
on this point Newcomb goes from not entirely correct assumptions 
when (1908, p. 394) he assumes that fluctuations of temperature on 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 243 

the earth's surface are the primary cause of changes of precipitation, 
rainfall, or great movements of the air and fluctuations of the 
barometer. He comes to the final conclusion of his investigation 
" that all the ordinary phenomena of temperature, rainfall, and 
winds are due to purely terrestrial causes and that no changes occur 
in the sun's radiation which have any influence upon them." We on 
the contrary have found that the variations in the solar activity play 
a very great part in variations in air pressure, temperature, and 
precipitation, and have come to the conclusion that it is the air pres- 
sure distribution which in the first place is influenced and produces its 
secondary actions o'n all the other meteorological elements. 

AIR PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AND SOLAR ACTIVITY 

In the investigations which we have described of the variations of 
the surface temperature of the ocean we found that these were 
prinicipally determined by the air pressure distribution, that is to say, 
by the winds of the individual months. This circumstance may 
give a hint where to find the cause which we are seeking. 

Our investigations of the air pressure variations at the different 
meteorological stations on the land give, to be sure, no positive re- 
sult indicating an explanation of the dependence between the atmos- 
pheric variations and the solar activity. On the other hand, it is not 
excluded that the explanation may be sought in the dififerences of 
atmospheric circulation ; for the variations in the air pressure at 
individual stations as a rule give no real expression of the disturb- 
ances of the atmosphere, or the variations in atmospheric circulation 
over great regions. Such an indication must be found in the varia- 
tions of the air pressure gradients. It would be easy to trace the 
variations in these gradients if one could only be sure of the dif- 
ference in air pressure at two different stations, but we have already 
in another connection remarked upon the difficulties involved. 

AIR PRESSURE DIFFERENCE COLOMBO-HYDERABAD 

Nevertheless we have made such an investigation for a region 
which we have already treated extensively, determining for this pur- 
pose the air pressure difference for each month for Colombo, in 
Ceylon, and Hyderabad, in north India, It is to be remarked that 
the air pressure difference at these stations is inverted during the 
year since the air pressure maximum in winter lies north of India 
in interior Asia and in summer south of it, at which time interior 
Asia has an air pressure minimum. These conditions control the 
variations of the monsoon winds. 



244 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

In figure 91, curve II gives the consecutive twelve-monthly means 
of air pressure difference between Colombo and Hyderabad. Curve 
III gives the consecutive twelve-monthly means of air temperature 
at Batavia. As the reader may see, the principal variations in these 
two curves go approximately in opposition. An increasing air pres- 
sure difference between Colombo and Hyderabad corresponds to a 
lower temperature at Batavia and vice versa. This was indeed to be 
expected ; for if the yearly air temperature difference is small there 
would be in the course of such years a relatively small mean motion 
of the air, and so the temperature in Batavia would tend to rise and 
vice versa. 

Curve I-b shows the air pressure variations in Bombay after 1900 
according to Arctowski's publication of 1912, given in twelve- 
monthly consecutive smoothed values. As already stated this curve 
runs within this time interval oppositely to the temperature of 
Batavia, and follows the curve for the air pressure difference between 
Colombo and Hyderabad. If, however, we follow the temperature 
variations of Bombay further back in time we see, as already stated, 
that they go in the same direction as in Batavia, and therefore 
oppositely to the variations of the air pressure difference. This is 
shown by curve I-a for the years 1880-89 (after Arctowski, 191 5) 
and also by curve IV. In the absence of twelve-monthly consecu- 
tive smoothed temperature values for the whole time interval men- 
tioned, we give the curve by aid of the mean temperature values for 
the whole year. It is obviously not so accurate as those which depend 
upon twelve-monthly consecutive smoothed values, but neverthe- 
less it gives the character of the variations. While the variations 
of this curve up to about 1896 go oppositely to the variations in 
the temperature curve of Batavia, before 1896, they are very simi- 
lar to the variations of the Batavia curve, and so go oppositely to 
the variations in the air pressure difference between Colombo and 
Hyderabad. 

Thus we find again the often appearing sudden reversal of the 
agreement between two curves of which one originally agrees with 
the other and then suddenly begins to march in the opposite direction. 
This often occurs in the comparison of two temperature curves at 
very different regions of the earth and also in the comparison be- 
tween a temperature curve and an air pressure curve. We note 
in regard to it that the year 1896 in which the two curves we are 
discussing suddenly entered upon opposite courses corresponds with 
the time between 1894 and 1897, when the solar activity showed 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 245 

sudden irregularities, so that the crossing of the curve of the widened 
known and unknown spectroscopic Hnes of Lockyer occurred. Most 
terrestrial and solar curves (see for example fig. 91, curves M and 
C, and curves of figs. 95 and 96) show also a well marked change 
of character about this time. 

im m i mo j895 mo ms 




Figure 91. Curves la and lb: temperature in Bombay according to Arctowski. II: anomalies of 
the air temperature difference between Colombo and Hyderabad. Ill : temperature anomalies for 
Batavia. IV : yearly mean of the temperature anomalies for Bombay. V : yearly mean the tern- 
perature anomalies for Leh. VI : anomalies for air pressure differences between the Azores maxi- 
mum and the Icelandic minimum, VII : temperature anomalies for all Norway. VIII : anomalies of 
the air pressure differences between 30° north 30° west and Sao Thiago. IX : anomalies of the sur- 
face temperatures at Liepe's stations VI (18° north 21° west). M: anomalies of the daily variation 
of magnetic declination in Christiania, the successive twelve-month mean minus the successive 
thirty-six month mean. Scale on the left. R, C: consecutive twelve-month mean of the daily num- 
ber of prominences according to observations at Rome (R) and Catania (C). All curves except IV 
and V indicate consecutive twelve-month means. 



Curve V, figure 91, gives the temperature variations in the high 
level station Leh in north India in the Himalayas. The reader will 
see that the temperature variations of this station go very well 



246 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 70 

with variations of the air pressure difference in the sense that high 
air pressure differences correspond to high temperatures and vice 
versa. This is what we would have expected from this mountain 
station. 

In the same figure is a curve (VII) for the anomalies of the air 
temperature in Norway. Allowing for a phase displacement of some 
months, by which interval of time the temperature variations at 
Norway precede the air pressure difference between Colombo and 
Hyderabad, the reader will see that the curves II and VII on the 
whole show a certain agreement. That is, relatively high tempera- 
tures in Norway occur somewhat before relatively great air pres- 
sure differences in India and vice versa. 

As we said in the beginning, no better results from such a com- 
parison of temperature with air pressure differences between two 
fixed points was to be expected.- Obviously it would be of very 
much greater weight if the variations in the pressure difference 
between the two action centers could be investigated, for these vary 
their position from year to year to some extent. 

VARIATIONS OF THE NORTHEASTERLY TRADE WIND AND THE 
SURFACE TEMPERATURE 

Liepe has emphasized the fact that variations in the strength of 
the northeast trade winds must call forth variations in the surface 
temperature of the stations which lie in the trade region. He thinks 
it is sho'wn that the increased intensity of the trade wind as a rule 
causes a decrease of temperature and vice versa. As a measure of 
the variations in the strength of the trade winds he uses the air 
pressure difference between a point which lies 30° north latitude 
and 30° west longitude and the air pressure at Sao Thiago on the 
Cape Verde Islands. 

Taking the anomalies of air pressure difference published by 
Liepe (1911, p. 482) we have smoothed them by taking twelve- 
monthly consecutive means and have represented them in curve VIII 
of figure 91 together with the curve IX for the temperature at 
Liepe's station VI which lies in the region of this pressure difference. 
The reader should note that this temperature curve is drawn in- 
verted. The curve for the air pressure difference has already been 
given in figure 56, but drawn inverted. It will be seen that for all 
the fluctuations of the short period of years there is a very exact 
agreement between the air pressure gradient curve and the tem- 
perature curve for station VI and also with the temperature curves 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 247 

for Liepe's stations III, IV, and V sho'wn in figures 56 and 59. It 
can scarcely be doubted that the variations in the air pressure gradi- 
ents, that is to say, in the intensity of the trade wind, is here an 
important cause of the temperature fluctuations within the observed 
fields which occur in intervals of a short number of years. It is 
very doubtful that, however, if this is true of those variations of 
longer periods of years. 

We see in figure 91 that the curves VIII and IX for the earlier 
time up to 1892 lie close together. They then gradually separate 
from one another and afterwards approach again in the year 1902. 
The temperature at station VI and also at other of Liepe's stations 
was considerably higher in thte time interval 1893 to 1902 than would 
be expected by reference to the curve of air pressure gradients. 

This relation is yet more clearly shown in figure 85, where we have 
reduced the curves by two- and three-years smoothing. Curve B 
shows the air pressure gradients in the trade wind region and curves 
I to VIII the temperature at Liepe's stations. We see that here 
curve B goes very well with the temperature curve of Liepe's sta- 
tions III to VI for the first part of the time up to 1892, but that after 
this time there is little agreement between the air pressure curve 
and the temperature curves. The combined two- and three-years' 
smoothing has eliminated the shorter fluctuations which in figure 91 
and figure 56 show such great agreement. We must therefore 
assume that in this region other factors began to come into play 
after 1892. It might be that surface currents from the Canary 
Islands bringing down water from the north had changed the 
temperature. Liepe has remarked that temperature variations may 
occur in this manner. The temperatures at Liepe's station I and 
partly also at Liepe's station II were particularly high in the years 
1893 to 1900. It might be thought that warmer water thus carried 
southwards would tend to hinder the depression of the tempera- 
tures corresponding to the winds. 

Returning now again to figure 91, and comparing the curve VIII 
for the already mentioned air pressure gradients with the curve II 
for the difiference in air pressure between Colombo and Hyderabad, 
we see that the variations in these two curves at corresponding times 
have a tendency to go oppositely. For instance, a small air pressure 
difference in India in the year 1897 coincides with a relatively great 
air pressure difference in the northeasterly trade wind. At other 
times they run in the same direction, as, for instance, when a great 



248 



SMITHSONIAN M JSCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. yo 




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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 249 

air pressure difference in the northeast trade winds occurs in the 
years 1886 to 1887, and again 1889 to 1890 with corresponding fea- 
tures in the curve of Colombo-Hyderabad. 

THE AIR PRESSURE DIFFERENCES OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC AND 
THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS 

In order to get a closer view of the variations in the dynamics 
of the atmosphere it is obviously necessary to study the variations 
between the different action centers instead of only taking air pres- 
sure differences between some chosen fixed points. It must also 
be of importance to consider both the variations in the strength of 
the action centers and the variations in their position at the different 
times. In the first respect it should be investigated whether the 
difference between an air pressure maximum and the adjacent air 
pressure minimum would furnish approximate values for the dis- 
turbance of the atmosphere. For this purpose we now consider one 
of the most marked air pressure minimum of all the earth, namely 
the so-called Icelandic minimum and the adjacent region in the 
south, the so-called Azores air pressure maximum. Both have the 
advantage that they have very definite forms. They continue for 
the whole year, while the continental action centers mostly change 
from maximum to minimum between winter and summer. 

In order to obtain an entirely satisfactory expression for the 
atmospheric condition over this part of the earth it would be neces- 
sary to study not only the difference between the pressure of these 
two action centers without regard to their position, but also to 
measure the distance between the centers, that is, the gradients, and 
the direction and the position of the lines of flow between them. 
Such an investigation would necessarily be very wide. We hope 
to undertake it later. Preliminarily we have confined ourselves to 
determining the difference of the intensity of pressure in the region 
of maximum and minimum only for a single month without regard 
to the variations in the positions. It appears that the air pressure 
variations in the maximum region are so small that the considerably 
greater variations in the minimum region would give alone by 
themselves almost the same result as if one should observe actu- 
ally the difference between maxima and minima. 

In this investigation we have employed charts of the average 
air pressure distribution over the Atlantic Ocean for each month 
which are published by the Meteorological Institute of Copenhagen 
and the Deutsche Seewarte in Hamburg. From these charts we 

17 



250 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. yo 



have taken the values of the highest and lowest isobars in these two 
action regions. Since the so-called Icelandic minimum in individual 
months may include two or three subordinate areas of minima, it is 
difficult to decide which of them shall be chosen in order to reach 
the desired homogeniety in the investigations. The most strongly 
marked minimum in an individual month may be. wholly within the 
Barents Sea or even be forced over to the Kara Sea, or on the 
other hand it may be in Baffin's Bay or within the North American 
Arctic Archipelago. Still, only in exceptional cases the choice be 
doubtful. 

m5_ 1900 JJOS. 1910 




Figure 93. Monthly means. I : the anomalies of the air pressure differ- 
ences of the North Atlantic. II : the anomalies of the surface temperature 
in fields 30° to 39° west, 50° to 53° north, scale inverted. Ill : the same for 
the field 20° to 29° west, 53° to 57° north, scale inverted. IV : the same for the 
field from 0° to 9° west 58° to 59° north. 

In curve IV, figure 92, we give the observed monthly values of 
the air pressure difference in the North Atlantic Ocean for the 
period 1885 to 19 10. In curve V we give the monthly variations in 
the air temperature in all Norway. In figure 93 are shown by curve 
I, the monthly variations in the air pressure difference, and in curves 
II and III the monthly variations in the surface temperature in the 
Danish fields at 30° to 39° west longitude and 20° to 29° west longi- 
tude, both curves being inverted. Finally in curve IV we give 
those of the fields 0° to 9° west longitude. In figure 94 we have 
given the curves of the above mentioned air pressure difference in 
the North Atlantic, the air temperature in all Norway and the sur- 
face temperature in the three Danish fields, all smoothed by consecu- 
tive twelve-monthly means. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 25 1 

If we consider first the last named curves it must be surprising 
what extraordinary agreement between the different curves here 
appears, particularly in curve I for the air pressure difference in the 
North Atlantic and curve II for the air temperature in all of Norway. 
These two curves agree even to the smallest feature, so that almost 
ever}^ small depression or wave in the curve of air pressure dif- 
ference a little later occurs in the temperature curve for Norway. 
In other words this shows that the shorter fluctuations of a few 
years only in the air temperature in Norway depend principally on 
the air pressure difference in the North Atlantic, so that the air 
pressure gradients, that is, increase of atmospheric circulation over 
the Atlantic Ocean, corresponds to an increase of temperature in 
Norway and vice versa. For the variations of a longer time interval 
the matter may run otherwise, shown in curves I and II. 

If we consider the relation of the surface temperature in the 
most westerly Danish fields (curves III and IV) and the air pressure 
difference over the North Atlantic Ocean more closely, we find the 
opposite case, namely, that an increase of the air pressure difference 
with an increase of atmospheric circulation over the Atlantic Ocean 
corresponds to a depression of the surface temperature for these 
Danish fields and vice versa; The reader should observe that the 
curves III and IV are inverted. In the most easterly Danish field, 
between o° and io° west longitude the relation is partly opposite. 
There an increase of the atmospheric circulation, in part at least, 
brings on a fall of temperature just as in Norway, only with less 
regularity, since the relations in this most easterly Danish field are 
partly a mixture of the relations which occur in Norway and in the 
westerly Danish fields. 

We have already remarked the close agreement between the 
curves for this most easterly Danish field (and in part also for the 
field further westerly between io° and 20° west longitude) and the 
curves for the fields further south in the easterly part of the Atlantic 
Ocean, as, for example, the curves for Petersson's stations I and II 
and Liepe's most northerly stations I, II, III. We have also spoken 
of the similarity between the February curve for the most easterly 
Danish field at 0° to 9° west longitude and the February curves for 
the most easterly of the regions investigated by us further south in 
the shipping course, Channel to New York, and also in the region, 
Portugal to the Azores. From all this we must draw the con- 
clusion that the temperature rise over north Europe which follows 
an increased air circulation also holds for the surface temperatures 



252 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 253 

over the greater part o^ the more easterly regions of the Atlantic 
Ocean. 

In this we find a good explanation of the partial opposition which 
we had found earlier between the temperature curve for the middle 
and more easterly parts of the Atlantic Ocean. That this relation 
of opposition is not complete, as we found, is furthermore explained 
because these more easterly fields farther south near the Channel 
and Portugal form a transition zone between two different action 
centers where the temperature variations have opposite courses. 
These regions fall now under the one, now under the other influence, 
in the manner which Hildebrandsson has already explained. 

Further to the south in the region of the trades the temperature 
variations in the eastern part of the ocean run oppositely to the direc- 
tion which they take farther north, since here, as we have already 
previously said, they are to a great extent dependent upon variations 
of the strength of the trade winds. An intensified trade wind causes 
a fall of temperature and vice versa. Now it is the case that varia- 
tions in the northeast trade (that is, variations in the air pressure 
gradients in the region of the trades) coincide with variations of air 
pressure difference in the North Atlantic Ocean, as an examination 
of curves VIII and VI of figure 91 will show clearly. These two 
curves coincide simultaneously very well even in many of their 
smaller peculiarities. Since, however, the variations in the air pres- 
sure difference agree with the variations of the temperature in Nor- 
way, while on the other hand the variations of the air pressure 
gradients in the trade regions go oppositely to the variations at 
Liepe's stations in the trades, it follows that the temperature varia- 
tions of the latter have an opposite direction to the temperature varia- 
tions in Norway which is also shown by a comparison of the inverted 
curve IX for Liepe's station VI with the direct curve VII for the 
temperature in Norway shown in figure 91. 

We see therefore that an increase in the air circulation works in 
opposite directions in different regions and these regions can often 
lie very near one another, as for example the most easterly Danish 
field at 0° to 9° west longitude and the most westerly Danish field 
at 20° to 29° and 30° to 39° west longitude. Such results warrant 
us in taking a closer view of the dependence of different types of 
temperature variations to which we have called attention and which 
at first sight seem subject to no law. The explanation of such rela- 
tions is apparent from the examples we have given. An increased 
air circulation, which corresponds generally with an increase of the 



254 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

southwesterly winds in the most northerly Atlantic Ocean and 
Europe, would produce an increase of temperature in these regions. 
This increased circulation would, however, at least as a rule, act in 
an opposite direction in the northern central parts of the North 
Atlantic Ocean, though the result depends obviously to a certain 
degree on the direction of the winds, as we have already said. Fur- 
thermore an intensification of the trades, which is associated with 
the increase of the air circulation, as mentioned above, would have 
the effect of causing the temperature of the ocean surface and of 
the air in the trade regions to fall. 

As we have already said, the curve for the most westerly Danish 
field shows great similarity with the temperature curves of the same 
time interval for a series of meteorological stations in different 
parts of the earth, while on the other hand the Scandinavian curves 
show for many years similarity with temperature curves for other 
stations. From this we conclude that the observed variations in the 
North Atlantic centers are not local, but are an expression of varia- 
tions widespread in the earth's atmosphere. 

This conclusion is supported by an investigation of the curves of 
consecutive twelve-months means. The natural question is now 
whether these agreements occur in the shorter fluctuations from 
month to month. We shall clarify our view of this matter by 
investigation of the curves of figure 92 and figure 93. We see, for 
example, that the monthly fluctuations in air pressure gradients in 
the North Atlantic on the whole correspond to variations in the air 
temperature in Norway, but fall generally a month later (see the 
curves IV and V of fig. 92). The agreements are occasionally 
almost complete though at times not so good. These apparent 
disagreements of the relations may be actual or they may be attrib- 
uted to errors in the air pressure differences, which are obtained 
by very rough methods. 

We have already given the monthly variations of the temperature 
in Stockholm, comparing them with the variations in the surface 
temperature at the lighthouse stations along the Norwegian coast, 
and we found a close agreement which extended even to the most 
minute particulars. Since the variations in these regions agree 
completely with the variations in the temperature of all Norway, 
we must therefore conclude that fluctuations in air pressure gradi- 
ents in the North Atlantic are accompanied by corresponding fluctua- 
tions in the temperature of all Scandinavia and in the coast water 
temperature of Norway. But the results of these fluctuations of 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 255 

air pressure gradients show themselves first in the air temperature 
of Scandinavia and somewhat later in the water temperatures along 
the Norwegian coast, as we should, of course, have expected. 

Considering now the curves of figure 93 we see that the agree- 
ment of the curve for the air pressure gradients over the North 
Atlantic Ocean with the curves for the Danish fields is less good 
with regard to individual peculiarities than that found in the above 
mentioned curves. But here also there are many cases of agree- 
ment and when we consider upon what slight material our tem- 
perature curves for the Danish fields rest we could scarcely have 
expected better. 

It seems to be shown with great distinctness that the temperature 
variations not only in the surface of the Atlantic Ocean, but in the 
air temperature over north Europe follow even in the smallest 
details from month to month in general the variations in the air 
pressure gradients over the North Atlantic Ocean, which is to 
say, with changes in the circulation of the atmosphere as a whole. 

AIR PRESSURE IN STYKKISHOLM AND TEMPERATURE IN STOCKHOLM 

The above described series of air pressure dififerences over the 
North Atlantic Ocean extends over only a relatively small time 
interval from 1884 to 1910. In order to study the air pressure 
variations during a longer period of years and compare them with 
the temperatures in Scandinavia we have made the experiment of 
employing the air pressure observations in Stykkisholm in Iceland. 
This station lies near the usual position of the Iceland pressure 
minimum. J. Hann (1904) has collected the air pressure anomalies 
there for the time 1851 to 1900. We have computed consecutive 
twelve-months means from these anomalies and show them in curve 
I of figure 95 together with curve II for the temperature anomalies 
of the corresponding period for Stockholm. The reader will see 
that these two curves show a remarkably complete agreement, de- 
scending in a considerable degree even to the smallest details. This 
shows particularly clearly what a close dependence exists between 
the air pressure distribution over the North Atlantic Ocean and 
the temperature variations in Scandinavia. 

VARIATIONS IN THE AIR PRESSURE GRADIENT AND IN 
THE SOLAR ACTIVITY 

The question which now naturally arises is, whether there exists a 
dependence between the variations in the air pressure distribution of 



256 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

the North Atlantic Ocean and the variations in the solar activity. 

When we investigate the relation between solar activity and ter- 
restrial phenomena we fall upon the difficulty that we have no cer- 
tain indicator of the variations of the solar activity. It we compare 
the variations in the number of the prominences and in the mag- 
netic elements of different kinds we find that the fluctuations of 
these phenomena coincidentally are not in agreement. Their curves 
follow somewhat different forms and we do not know which of them 
gives the most correct expression of the variations in the solar 
activity. More precisely expressed, we do not know which of them 
best represents that form of solar activity which has the greatest 
influence on the variations of our terrestrial phenomena. On this 
account we are even compelled to work somewhat in the dark until 
a greater clearness in these relations is brought about."^ 

Our curves for the air pressure difference, for the temperature, 
etc., show, as we have already said, that it is particularly the 



^ Krogness assumes that " the magnetic storminess " is a better expression 
of the variations of the solar activity than the sun spot numbers. If one, 
however, compares the magnetic observations for different parts of the earth 
he finds often a considerable disagreement. We find, for example, that the 
fluctuations in the daily variation of declination is often very unequal in 
Christiania, Prague, and Milan (see Wolfer Astronom. Mitt. No. C. for 1908). 
Also we find that the curves of the disturbance of the three magnetic elements 
in Potsdam differ very strongly from the curve of disturbance of daily varia- 
tions of declination in Christiania. If these magnetic variations were a true 
index of the fluctuations in solar activity there must have been a greater simi- 
larity between them. Terrestrial conditions and partly purely local condi- 
tions obviously play so great part in the magnetc disturbances that the solar 
variations are more or less obscured by them, and it is difficult, or even im- 
possible with our present knowledge, to form a satisfactory analysis of them. 
It is, however, probable that the magnetic perturbations within the zone of 
the Northern Lights is a fairly representative expression of the corresponding 
variations of the solar activity, at least a much better one than the perturba- 
tions which occur at lower latitudes where the effects are so much smaller. 
But within the zone of the Northern Lights we have no magnetic observational 
material that extends over a sufficient number of years to base upon it a 
study of the long period variations. The observations best adapted for our 
purpose have been carried on since 1843 at the observatory at Christiania, and 
relate to the average daily variations of magnetic declination. Prof. H. Greel- 
muyden has been of the greatest service to us, for he has with his own hands 
made an abstract of these observations for our disposal. In table 19-M will 
6e found the monthly anomalies computed by us for the time since i860. It 
is fortunate that now so good an observing station as that of the Haldde 
Observatory (Finnmark) has been erected within the circle of the Northern 
Lights, but thus far it has not been in existence long enough for its measure- 
ments to be used as the basis of a study of long period fluctuations. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 257 

shorter periods of a few years which come most prominently in the 
fluctuations, and that these shorter periods are adapted to partially 
cover the longer eleven-year period. Therefore it is necessary to 
investigate first the relation between these shorter period fluctuations 
in the air pressure difference and the corresponding shorter period 
variations in solar activity. 

Let us now consider the consecutive twelve-monthly smoothed 
curves which show these fluctuations most clearly. In figure 96, 
curves II and III represent respectively the solar prominences and 
sun spots. In both curves we have eliminated the eleven-year 
periods by subtracting from the successive twelve-monthly means 
the successive thirty-six monthly means. In the same figure we 
give the corresponding curve I for the daily variations of declination 
in Christiania in which the eleven-year period is eliminated in the 
same way. As the reader will observe, these curves often do not run 
parallel. 

If we now compare the sun spot curve and the prominence curve 
with curve IV for the air pressure difference in the North Atlantic 
and curves V and VI for the temperature in Norway and Stock- 
holm, we find that it loo'ks in general as if the first two curves were 
almost inverted from the last two in the time before 1897 or 1896 
when in all the curves there were great variations present. For the 
time after the middle of the '90's and up to 1910 it has more the 
appearance of a direct agreement. Compare also figure 75 curve II 
for the temperature of the water along the Norwegian coast. 

In figure 95 we give the same curve III for the sun spots and 
also the inverted curve IV for the prominences according to the 
Roman observations. The latter curve shows in part a very good 
agreement with curve I for the air pressure in Stykissholm. It is 
also worth noticing that the variations in this inverted prominence 
curve are partly a little later than the corresponding variations in 
the air pressure curve. With respect to the correspondences be- 
tween these different curves, we must refer the reader more particu- 
larly to the figures. 

We shall come later to these direct or inverted agreements be- 
tween the terrestrial and solar shorter period fluctuations, but first 
we will follow the shorter fluctuations from month to month which 
are seen in curves of figure 92. Here we find something exactly 
similar. In the curves I and II we give the monthly variations 
in the daily number of prominences according to the observations 
in Rome, Palermo, and Catania. As the reader will see, there 



258 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 




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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 259 




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26o SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

exists here a considerable disagreement between the various curves, 
and on this account alone there cannot be expected a very satis- 
factory result of a comparison of these curves with the curves IV 
and V for the air pressure difference, and for the air temperature 
in Norway. The reader will see that at certain times the fluctua- 
tions in these curves go oppositely to the fluctuations in the promi- 
nence curves, and at other times in the same direction; but if one 
imagines that there is part of the time a coincidence and at other 
times a displacement of one or two months, he sees for example 
that the variations in the curve for the air pressure differences for 
the time after 1903 goes quite well with the variations in the 
prominence curve for Catania. 

In curve III we give the monthly variations in the sun spots ; but 
the agreement between this curve and curve IV for the air pres- 
sure difference in the North Atlantic Ocean is also not very good. 
Occasionally we find that the variations from month to month in 
the sun spots go almost exactly inverted to the variations in the 
air pressure difference, and at other times, on the contrary, we find 
them in the same direction. It appears as if occasionally a dis- 
placement of a month or more was brought about, after which 
interval the variations in the air pressure difference follow the 
fluctuations in the sun spots. This is, for example, the case if 
one considers the great variations in the time after 1903. 

In the curves VI and VII are shown the monthly anomalies for 
the variations of declination in Christiania and for the disturbance 
of the magnetic elements at Potsdam. The fluctuations for longer 
periods are eliminated because the successive twelve-monthly means 
have been subtracted from the directly observed mean values for 
each month."^ 

We see that these two curves present a rather fragmentary 
agreement. Compared with the curves for the air pressure dif- 
ference in the North Atlantic and for the temperature in Norway 
we find here also the same conditions that were earlier remarked, 
namely, that they run partly directly with these curves and partly 
oppositely. It is therefore diflicult to find a fixed rule in the 
matter. We refer for further details to the curves themselves where 
the relations are shown plainly to the eye. 



^ Since the curves represent the monthly anomalies of the variations it 
follows that the half year and vv^hole year periods in the yearly declination 
variations are principally eliminated. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 26 1 

• EIGHT MONTHLY PERIODS IN THE SUN SPOTS AND IN THE AIR 
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE OVER THE NORTH ATLANTIC 

Prof. Birkeland has pointed out that one might expect an eight- 
monthly period in the sun spots on account of the combined action 
of Venus and Jupiter, according as these stand in conjunction or in 
opposition. Such an eight-monthly period we have actually found 
in curve I for the sun spots which we give in figure 97. The 
curve shows the difference between the observed relative numbers 
and the twelve-monthly smoothed relative numbers fo'r the sun 
spots as determined in Wolfer's pubhcations in the Astronomische 
Mittelungen. The curve shows particularly great variations in 
the neighborhood of sun spot maxima and the greater excursions 
seem to have a regular time interval. This holds especially in the 
years 1904 to 1910 when the average time interval between these 
excursions amounted to eight months. As earlier remarked Krog- 
ness had found a similar eight-monthly period in the daily varia- 
tions of the declination in Christiania. 

Curve IV, figure 92, for the air pressure difference in the North 
Atlantic Ocean, shows also great excursions, with intervals between 
which correspond to the excursions we have noted in the curve 
of the sun spots. As the reader will see most clearly, in the latest 
maximum period there come, from one to two and occasionally three 
months after the eight-monthly excursions in the sun spot curve, 
corresponding excursions in the curve of air pressure difference. 
The same will also be found to a certain degree in the earlier maxi- 
mum periods from 1891 to 1898, while on the other hand in the first 
maximum period in the years 1884, 1885, and 1886, no indication of 
such an agreement between the sun spot curve and the air pressure 
difference curve appears to be found. However, the observed 
agreements are as good as we could have expected in considera- 
tion of the scanty observational material and the faulty treatment 
of it. Furthermore the six-monthly and twelve-monthly periods 
which are found in meteorological phenomena tend partly to hide 
these assumed eight-month periods. 

As we have said, the variations in the sun spots are particularly 
great at sun spot maximum. They are occasionally at sun spot 
minimum very small. Nevertheless the variations during sun spot 
minimum are associated with fairly great variations in the atmos- 
pheric and magnetic phenomena upon the earth. This can in part 
be explained from the fact that it is not clear that it is the greater 
or less absolute degree of intensity in the solar activity which influ- 



262 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

ences the meteorological phenomena, but rather that variations in 
this intensity of solar activity are of decisive influence for the 
production of variations in the terrestrial phenomena. 

TWO-YEAR PERIODS IN THE SUN SPOTS AND IN THE TEMPERATURE 

OF SCANDINAVIA 

In the terrestrial magnetic elements there are found periods of six 
months and of twelve months. These rest on the different positions 
of the earth in relation to the sun during its yearly movements. 
Krogness has noted a very well-marked two-year period in the mag- 
netic declination which may be ascribed to the accumulation of. 
three periods of six, eight, and twelve moMhs. Since twenty-four 
is a multiple of six, eight and twelve, the common action of these 
three single periods must produce a two-year period. Woikof 
and others have shown that a two-year period in meteorological 
relations often appears. We see an indication of it in many of our 
meteorlogical curves. It comes quite well into view in the tem- 
perature curves V and VI of figure g6 and in part in the air pres- 
sure curves figures 95, I, and 96, IV. But it is more important 
that a similar two-year period also occurs in the curves of the sun 
spots which are found in the same figures, curves III. If we take 
into account only the smaller depressions of this curve we find them 
very regularly each two years, namely in the years 1861, 1863, 
1865, 1867, 1869, 1871, 1873, and 1875. In the year 1877 the depres- 
sion in the curve III is lacking, but we find it in the curves V and 
VI of figure 96 and also in curve I of figure 95. Depressions are 
found also in the years 1879, 1881, 1882-3, 1884, 1886, 1888, 1890, 
1892-3, 1894-5, 1897, 1899. Later, after 1901, it is more irregu- 
lar. As a rule each second one of these minima is considerably 
more marked than the one lying between. So for example very 
marked minima occur in 1879, 1882-3, 1886, 1890, while the minima 
lying between in the years 1881, 1884, and 1888 are less marked and 
partly only slightly indicated. We, come in other words, to the 
result that the curve of sun spots as well as the temperature curves 
show rather well-marked two-years periods. 

Curve IV, figure 96, for the air pressure in Stockholm, shows, 
for the sixty years of its duration, in the years after 1865 a pretty 
good direct agreement with the sun spot curve, and before 1865 with 
the magnetic curve I. We will carefully compare this air pressure 
curve for Stockholm and for a later time also curve V for Norway 
with the curve of sun spots. We see then that in the year 1877 a 
depression occurs in the temperature curves which is not found in 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 263 

the sun spot curve. In the years 1885 and 1887 there is also no 
agreement.^ But in general there is obviously throughout a quite 
good agreement between the sun spot curve and the temperature 
curve. A minimum in the one corresponds to a minimum in the 
other ; occasionally, however, with some displacement of a few 
months. There is, the obvious difference, that the greater de- 
pressions which we have noted in the sun spot curve often cor- 
respond with quite small depressions in the temperature curve or 
vice versa that great depressions in the temperature curve come 
simultaneously with small depressions in the sun spot curve. As 
particular!}' characteristic examples, we refer to the variations in 
the years 1878 to 1884. 

This characteristic relation of the distribution and magnitude of 
the minima in these different curves is the reason for the apparently 
opposite course which they show and which we have referred to 
above in relation to the time before the middle of the 90's. As an 
example of this, we point to the fact that a small minimum in the sun 
spot curve for 1888 corresponds to the very deep minimum in the air 
pressure curves, figures 95, I, and 96, IV, and in the temperature 
curves figures 96, V and VI, for the same year (assuming that the 
temperature minimum at the beginning of 1888 did not correspond 
to the sun spot minimum of a whole year earlier), whereas the deep 
minimum of the sun spot curve for 1890 corresponds to a very 
inconsiderable minimum in the other curves some months later. 
Furthermore, the small minimum in the sun spot curve in the years 
-1892-3 corresponds to a very well-marked minimum in the other 
curves at the corresponding time. This difference in the minima 
in the sun spot curve occurs towards the middle of the decade of 
the 90's, and that is the reason why greater direct agreement be- 
tween the sun spot curve and the other curves seems to come in 
after this time. 

It is worth remarking that in very many cases the maxima and 
minima of sun spot curves fall later than the corresponding maxima 
and minima of the air pressure and temperature curves. In the 
time from 185 1 to 1865 the sun spot curve (fig. 95, III) and the 
meteorological curves (fig. 95, I and II) are very different and go 
in part oppositely to one another. 



^ If we consider, however, the magnetic curve I we find that in this time there 
was a quite good agreement between it and the temperature curves, if we 
admit a displacement of a few months. Also a direct agreement could be 
found between the sun spot curve and the temperature curves for these years 
if we should admit a displacement of about a year. 



264 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

POSSIBLE ONE-YEAR PERIOD IN THE SUN SPOTS 

It is yet clearer that apparently there is also a period of one year 
in the variation of the sun spots. Curve II of figure 96 shows a 
very distinct one-year period. This curve is the result of a consecu- 
tive eight-monthly smoothing of the differences which are given in 
curve I as above stated. The one-year period is particularly well 
shown in the interval 1890 to 1895. It is, however, possible that this 
period is accidental and results from the incompleteness of the obser- 
vations. In the years 1890 to 1895 there exists a minimum for this 
curve in midwinter, or exactly at that time of year when the observa- 
tions of sun spots at Zurich are on the whole least complete. 

VARIOUS PERIODS 

We have earlier remarked that in several meteorological elements, 
for example at Batavia, there appears to be a period whose average 
length is 32 to 33 months. That is about two and three-quarters 
years. This apparent period, like the eleven-year period, is subject 
to differences of length and ranges between two years and three or 
even four years. It is questionable whether this period depends 
upon a combination of several elementary periods which perhaps 
may be associated with corresponding periods on the sun. We have 
already remarked that a two-year sun spot period seems to be recog- 
nizable and we have also noted that it was found by the two Lockyers 
that there is a period in the solar activity of about 3.7 years. They 
find it both in the prominences and in the variations of the spectro- 
scopic lines of the sun spots, as also in the heliographic latitude of 
the sun spots. Such a period in the solar activity of three to four 
years appears also in several of our curves. If, however, the sun 
spot periods of two years and between three and four years make 
themselves felt in the meteorological phenomena we could obtain 
from this a fairly close relation with different time intervals, of 
which, however, the average duration may very well be about two 
and three-fourths years. 

SECULAR VARIATIONS IN SOLAR ACTIVITY AND IN METEOROLOGICAL 

RELATIONS 

We have not treated of the very long period or secular variations 
but yet we will mention some peculiarities in several of our curves 
which are of interest in connection with the question of long periods. 
Many of our graphical representations show the relations between 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 265 

sun spots and prominences, as figures 69, 88, 89, and others. For 
example, in figure 88 we see that the eleven-year period in the promi- 
nence curve comes out very clearly. The reader will see, however, 
that the three periods from 1878 to 19 13 are very differently formed. 
In the first of these three periods there was a very great average 
number of prominences, in the next considerably less, and in the 
last relatively very few. The smoothed curve for the prominences 
shows therefore a clear decrease for this time interval of thirty-five 
years. It is plainly a part of a secular period in the solar activity. 
It appears that a similar sinking or corresponding rise occurred in 
several of our meteorological curves. We have already remarked 
that the temperature amplitude in Wellington (fig. 71) and the air 
pressure in Bata-via (fig. 69) showed such changes. A direct or 
inverted agreement between the solar and terrestrial phenomena 
with respect to very long periods is indicated by still other curves. 
So, for example, in the curve for the temperature amplitude of 
North America (fig. 88 and also fig. 89) particularly in the Pacific 
states, but also in the Gulf states and in the inner states, the ampli- 
tude has on the whole during the three above mentioned eleven-year 
periods gradually become less, as well also as the air temperature 
itself on the west coast of the United States (fig. 64 curve I) . Other 
examples could be cited which point to such secular changes in the 
meteorological phenomena in correspondence with solar changes. 

, CLOSE RELATION BETWEEN THE VARIATIONS IN SOLAR ACTIVITY 
AND IN METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 

As a general result of our investigations we can here only remark 
that certainly a very close relation exists between variations in the 
solar activity and variations in the meteorological phenomena of 
the earth. Even short interval variations in the radiation of the sun 
are shown very distinctly in our meteorological phenomena and in 
the surface temperature of the ocean. They act through variations 
of the air pressure distribution, but the expression on the earth may 
take different directions according to conditions, running inverted 
to the solar variations or parallel to them. 

This close dependence between the variations of the solar activity 
and the variations of the meteorological phenomena is shown not 
so much by the general correlation of our curves of figures 95 and 
96 as by the sudden and extraordinary change of character which 
all of these curves of- the solar and the terrestrial phenomena present 
in the middle of the decade of the 90's. 



266 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

XIII. CONCLUSION 

The point of departure in these investigations was the wish to 
investigate more closely some of the yearly temperature variations 
in the North Atlantic Ocean. We have seen that such variations 
are present and that they are very considerable and extend over 
great regions in common. They can be ascribed in greater part 
to the action of the air pressure distribution, that is to say, the 
winds. In order to understand the occurrence and the nature o'f the 
variations, meteorological variations must therefore be closely 
studied. These can be understood only when the atmosphere as a 
whole is investigated, and we are therefore led to make a very wide 
investigation. 

Hitherto these extensive investigations have shown us that dif- 
ferent groups of regions vary intact in a definite direction, while 
another group of regions varies in an opposite sense, and that again 
still other regions show transition phenomena, partly on account of 
phase displacements and partly on account of mixed relationships 
to the primary groups. All this gives us a variegated picture of the 
meteorological fluctuations, but out of this same variegated picture 
we find also by a proper analysis the influence of the variations in 
the solar activity which in all probability make themselves felt first 
in the higher layers of the atmosphere and thereby produces dis- 
turbances which again introduce changes in the lower layers. Such 
dynamic changes will take different courses in respect to the tem- 
perature, cloudiness, precipitation, etc., at different stations of 
the earth. But it seems possible by a thorough evaluation of avail- 
able observational material to work out sure and general rules to 
cover the phenomena. 

The present work is to be regarded only as an introduction to 
such more thorough investigations, and we must postpone a clarifi- 
cation of many of the questions raised here to later publications. 
Among them is the regulating action which the thermal condition 
of the ocean exercises upon the air circulation and the air tem- 
perature. 



POSTSCRIPT 

Our researches described above were finished during the winter 
1916-1917, and our report was published by the Society of Science 
in Christiania/ Since that time we have received from Dr. C. G. 
Abbot several papers that are of the greatest importance for our 
investigations. We may especially mention " On the Distribution 
of Radiation over the Sun's Disk and New Evidences of the Solar 
Variability" by C. G. Abbot, F. E. Fowle, and L. B. Aldrich 
[1916] ; " Arequipa Pyrheliometry " by C. G. Abbot [1916] ; "The 
Sun and the Weather" by C. G. Abbot [1917] ; "Effect of Short 
Period Variations of Solar Radiation on the Earth's Atmosphere " 
by H. Helm Clayton [1917]. From Dr. L. A. Bauer we have also 
received two interesting papers : " The Local Magnetic Constant 
and its Variations" [1914] and "Solar Radiation and Terrestrial 
Magnetism" [1915]. 

By the various investigations described in these papers it is now 
established beyond doubt that on the one side the radiation of heat 
from the sun varies not only from year to year more or less periodic- 
ally in a similar way as the sun spots, but there are also very great 
fluctuations in the radiation within short intervals of a few days, and 
on the other side it is shown that correlations exist between these 
fluctuations in the solar radiation and meteorological and magnetic 
changes on the earth. 

INVESTIGATIONS ON FLUCTUATIONS IN SOLAR RADIATION 
BY ABBOT, FOWLE, AND ALDRICH 

In their paper : " On the Distribution of Radiation over the Sun's 
Disk " (by C. G. Abbot, F. E. Fowle, and L. B. Aldrich) the authors 
prove that there is a great difference in the distribution over the 
sun's disk of the various solar rays. The contrast of brightness 
between the center and the edge of the sun is greatest for short 
wave lengths and diminishes as one comes to the red and infra-red. 
" There are, however, slight but significant differences between the 
mean results of different years," greater contrast of brightness 



^ Skrifter utgit av Videnskapsselskapet i Kristiania 1916. I Matein. — Na- 
turv. Klasse. Vol. I, No. 9. Kristiania, 1917. 

267 



268 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

prevailing- probably along with greater solar radiation at times of 
high solar activity. Thus in 1913, when there was a minimum of 
solar radiation (and also an exceptionally developed minimum of 
sun spots), the contrast of brightness between the center of the 
sun's disk and the edge was decidedly less than in the years 1914 
and 19 1 7, when there was evidently higher solar activity indicated 
by greater solar radiation (greater "solar constant"). "Besides 
these long-period changes there appear to be small changes of con- 
trast from day to day, correlated with the changes of solar radiation 
heretofore discovered by the authors. For this type of changes 
increased contrast is associated with decreased solar radiation." 

The authors are thus " led to consider two causes of change 
existing in the sun. One, going with increased solar activity, they 
regard to be increased effective, solar temperature, which naturally 
produces increased radiation and increased contrast. The other, 
altering from day to day, they regard to be increased transparency 
of the outer solar envelope, which naturally produces increased 
radiation but decreased contrast. All these changes are greater for 
shorter wave lengths." 

It may also be of some interest to mention here that according 
to the observations made during the year 1913 there should have 
been a sudden change in the solar radiation on September 23, when 
the solar constant and solar contrast values fell off and remained 
comparatively low during the rest of that season. At the same time 
" a marked change in the distribution and total amount of the water 
vapor in the atmosphere took place. The values of precipitable 
water in the atmosphere were far above the normal until September 
23, and from then to the end of the period of observation generally 
about normal or a little below. A sirnilar change is indicated, but 
not in so great a degree, by the observations with the wet and dry 
thermometers. The temperature also fell at the same critical time. 

In his paper on " Arequipa Pyrheliometry " Dr. Abbot discusses 
the observations made with the silver-disk pyrheliometer and nearly 
simultaneous measurements of atmospheric humidity made from 
August, 1912, to the end of March, 191 5, at Arequipa, Peru, at the 
station of the Harvard College Observatory. We find that the 
Arequipa results fully confirm the variability of the sun both from 
year to year and from day to day, shown by investigations at Mount 
Wilson and elsewhere. The monthly mean values of the Arequipa 
observations also show remarkably close connections between the 
solar constant (solar radiation) and vapor pressure of the terrestrial 
atmosphere. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 269 

DR. BAUER ON SOLAR RADIATION AND TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 

In his paper of 191 5, Dr. Bauer finds a remarkable correlation 
between the changes in solar radiation, as shown by values of the 
solar constant possessing the requisite accuracy, and the changes in 
the Earth's magnetism. This is the case not only with the more or 
less sporadic changes from day to day, but also with the annual 
changes of the solar constant and the annual magnetic changes. 
" Since the solar constant changes occur only approximately in ac- 
cordance with sun spot activity, and since the magnetic changes are 
found to conform closely to those in the solar constant, an explana- 
tion is found as to why the irregularities in the magnetic secular 
change do not always synchronize with changes in solar activity as 
measured by the sun spot numbers, nor correspond in magnitude to 
them." " The relation between changes in solar constant and mag- 
netic constant is of such a definite character as to make it appear 
that one set of changes may furnish an effective control over the 
other." " Just how far changes in solar constant," as measured by 
the pyrheliometer, " may be taken as a true measure of those changes 
in the sun's activity, which really are the cause, directly and indi- 
rectly, of the magnetic changes, requires further investigation." 
Dr. Bauer also finds that the magnetic effects observed during 
total solar eclipses are in general harmony with the magnetic changes 
correlated with changes in the solar constant, as measured by the 
pyrheliometer. 

DR. ABBOT ON FLUCTUATIONS IN SOLAR RADIATION,, SUN SPOTS, 
AND TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURE 

In his paper on "The Sun and the Weather" Dr. Abbot [1917] 
gives a comparison between the mean annual values of the solar 
constant as obtained by the observations at Mount Wilson for the 
years from 1905 to 19 15 (except 1907) and the relative numbers 
of the sun spots. He found that the maximum mean annual value 
of the solar constant observed occurred in 1905 when there also 
was a maximum of sun spots, and the minimum annual value of the 
solar constant occurred in 1913 when there was an exceptional mini- 
mum of sun spots. But otherwise the fluctuations in the value of 
the solar constant do not always correspond with the fluctuations in 
the sun spot numbers. There is an especially marked disagreement 
in this respect in the values obtained for 191 2 when the solar con- 
stant had a comparatively high value while the sun spot number 
was near its minimum. But on the whole it may be said that a low 



270 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

solar constant generally corresponds to a low number of sun spots, 
and as a general result Dr. Abbot comes to the conclusion that an 
increase of 25 sun spot numbers may be attended by i per cent 
increase of solar radiation. If this be correct, Dr. Abbot finds that 
as the average range of sun spot numbers in the 15 sun spot cycles 
from the year 1750 to the year 1906 was 90, so we may expect that 
an average sun spot maximum is attended with 3.6 per cent more 
emission of solar radiation than the minimum of sun spot activity. 
According to computations made by Dr. Abbot, this might be ex- 
pected to be attended with a general increase of terrestrial tempera- 
ture of 2.5° C. 

Dr. Abbot has also kindly sent us the measurements of the solar 
constant made at Mount Wilson during the months June to October, 
1916. The mean value of the solar constant was 1.955; the mean 
relative number of sun spots that year was 50, which agrees well 
with the value of the solar constant, according to Dr. Abbot's con- 
clusions. 

DR. Clayton's investigations on correlation between solar 

RADIATION AND TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURE 

Of special interest for our researches is the paper by Dr. H. Helm 
Clayton, of Argentina, on the " ef^fect of short-period varia- 
tions of solar radiations on the earth's atmosphere," given us by 
Dr. Abbot, in which the author definitely proves that there is an 
intimate relation between the short-period variations in the solar 
constant, as measured at Mount Wilson, and the variations of air 
temperature at several meteorological stations at the earth's surface. 

By using the method of correlation, as worked out by Karl 
Pearson, Dr. Clayton first makes a comparison between the changes 
of the solar constant, as observed at Mount Wilson, and the changes 
of temperature at Pilar in Argentina during the months July to 
November, 1913, and the months from June to October, 1914. He 
found that an increase of the solar constant was regularly followed 
by an increase of the temperature at Pilar. The maximum cor- 
relation follows one to two days after the corresponding solar values. 

By using the same method, Dr. Clayton also determined for 29 
other stations, distributed over the globe, the correlation coefficients 
connecting temperatures with solar constant values, obtained at 
Mount Wilson in 1913 and 1914. He found that at some places 
there was decided positive correlation, i. e. increase of temperature 
follows increase of solar radiation, while at other places there was 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 2/1 

a negative correlation, /. e., decrease of temperature follows increase 
of solar radiation. He came to the conclusion that the stations with 
positive correlation are distributed along certain belts round the 
earth : one belt in the tropic regions and two others in the arctic 
and antarctic regions. Between these belts there are two other belts 
with negative correlation, corresponding chiefly to the temperate 
zones and partly to the sub-tropical zones. In the belts with positive 
correlation the maximum temperatures follow about one or two 
days after the maximum of solar radiation. In the zones with nega- 
tive correlation the maximum effect of the changes in the solar 
radiation follows after three or four days. 

By computing the consecutive five-day means of the daily values 
Dr. Clayton has- plotted smoothed curves of the solar constant and 
of the temperature at several meteorological stations, for the months 
September to November, 1913. The temperature curves show great 
resemblance to the curve of the solar constant. At five stations, 
where the correlation was positive, there is a direct agreement be- 
tween the temperature curves and the solar curve. At two other 
stations, where there was a negative correlation, the temperature 
curves are inverted. But in some cases, especially at Stykkisholm, 
Iceland, and Sacramento, California, the temperature curves show 
direct agreement with the solar curve for some part of the period 
investigated ; but then suddenly the agreement changes to be inverted 
or vice versa. As will be seen, this is a phenomenon which cor- 
responds in a remarkable way to the relations we have found to exist 
between the temperature curves for a great many stations and the 
sun spot curve, during long periods. We found, for instance, 
that the consecutive twelve-month means of the temperature at dif- 
ferent stations could, during a long series of years, vary directly 
as the sun spot numbers, but then they suddenly changed, and 
during a subsequent long series of years they varied inversely as 
the sun spot numbers, or vice versa. We also found that in some 
regions of the earth the temperature curves varied generally di- 
rectly as the sun spot numbers, while in other regions of the world 
the temperature curves varied inversely as the sun spot numbers ; 
and finally in some regions the temperature curves were mixtures 
of these two types of curves. The temperature varied partly directly, 
and partly inversely as the sun spot numbers. Dr. Clayton's curves 
of the five-day means of temperature at various stations seem to 
indicate that there, is exactly the same difference of type between 
these curves as compared with the curve of the five-day means of the 
solar radiation. 



2/2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 

Dr. Clayton takes it for granted that the variations in the solar 
radiation must have a direct effect upon the temperature at the 
earth's surface, and he consequently thinks that in a region where 
there is a positive correlation between the variations in tempera- 
ture, and the variations in solar radiation, an increase of temperature 
is directly due to an increase of solar radiation and vice versa. The 
negative correlation in other parts of the world he, however, thinks 
to be a secondary result of the changes in solar activity. As far 
as we understand him this must be caused chiefly by the transport 
of colder air from higher latitudes. He considers the most prob- 
able explanation to be " th&t tropical areas, and especially the tropi- 
cal land areas, are the parts most heated by the increase of solar 
radiation., This heating causes an expansion of the air of the tropics 
and an overflow toward the temperate zones, particularly towards 
the cooler ocean areas in this zone. The final result would be a 
fall of pressure in the tropics and a rise in the temperate regions 
causing an intensification of the normal pressure belts of the earth." 
He consequently examined the variations in the pressure at several 
stations in various parts of the globe, and comes to the conclusion 
that these pressure variations really verify the correctness of his 
view. The stations examined are, however, too few to base any real 
conclusions on, and the correlations between the pressure variations 
and the variations in solar radiation are in most cases very small. He 
thinks, however, that this indicates " that the pressure changes are 
the result of the temperature changes induced in the air by variation 
of solar radiation." 

With his view of the causes of the temperature changes. Dr. Clay- 
ton has some difficulty in explaining how it is that " the effect of 
the solar change does vary from negative to positive at the same 
place, and while there may be a seasonable change there are also 
changes which cannot be explained in this way, and the reason for 
which remains yet to be found." He suggests, however, that " these 
diverse effects appear to be associated in some way with shifts in 
the centers of action in the atmosphere, as for example the shift 
of the anticyclonic center in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and that 
of the low pressure center near Iceland and the Aleutian Islands." 

He furthermore says : " I am led to infer that an oscillation in the 
areas of positive and negative departures is characteristic of all 
effects of solar changes in the earth's atmosphere, and has been one 
of the reasons why the relation between atmospheric phenomena 
has been difficult to detect, and why periodic changes of all kinds 
have been masked." 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 273 

For the months examined in the year 191 3, Dr. Clayton thinks 
that he finds a period of about 22 days in the solar radiation as well 
as in the temperature at Buenos Aires, and, especially in the solar 
radiation he finds another shorter period of between 11 and 14 days. 

Dr. Clayton sums up the results of his investigations thus : 

" I. There is an intimate relation between the solar changes and 
meteorolog'ical changes of short period. 

" 2. There is a class of meteorological changes which have their 
origin in equatorial regions, and by a transference of air probably 
in the upper la3'ers, are felt within a few days in higher latitudes. 
These changes are the complement of the complex meteorological 
drift which goes from west to east in temperate latitudes with a 
component of motion from Pole to Equator in both hemispheres." 

Dr. Clayton does not expressly say whether, according to his view, 
the positive correlation in the arctic regions is directly due to the 
variations in the solar insulation, or whether it may be due to the 
above-mentioned transference of air from the equatorial regions 
probably in the upper layers which should be felt " within a few 
days in higher latitudes." 

DR. Clayton's values of the correlation factor are not directly 

DUE TO THE EFFECT OF SOLAR RADIATION ON TERRESTRIAL TEM- 
PERATURE,, BUT TO ITS EFFECT ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE. 

It is evident that though the correlation factors found by Dr. Clay- 
ton are not very great, still most of them are perfectly certain. We 
do not, however, agree with the author that according to his inves- 
tigations the regions with positive correlation and the regions with 
negative correlations may be assumed to be arranged in belts round 
the globe. By considering the correlations between the daily varia- 
tions of solar activity and of temperature at the earth's surface at 
the 30 stations investigated by Dr. Clayton, we come much more 
to the conclusion that the occurrence of positive or negative cor- 
relations at these stations depends chiefly on their situation with 
regard to the centers of pressure maxima and minima of the atmos- 
phere, in the same way as we have found it to be the case with the 
monthly and annual variations of temperature at the earth's sur- 
face in the various regions of the globe. 

As the temperature of a region is essentially influenced by the 
prevailing winds, i. e., by the mean barometric gradient, we must 
expect that in regions, where the normal temperature is low as com- 
pared with neighboring regions in the same latitude, an increase 



274 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

of the gradient will cause a sinking of the temperature, while in 
regions with comparatively high normal temperature an increase of 
the gradient will cause a rising temperature. 

We must consequently conclude that at all stations, whether in 
the tropics, or in the temperate zones, or in the arctic regions, 
the fluctuations in the solar activity, by effecting changes in the 
distribution of air pressure and in the circulation of the atmosphere 
will cause changes of the temperature at the earth's surface accord- 
ing to the situation of the place. Let us examine some of Dr. 
Clayton's stations from this point of view. Pilar, in Argentina, is 
situated far outside the tropical regions in 31° 39' S. 63° 5' W. 
It should consequently, according to Dr. Clayton's theory, be ex- 
pected to have a negative correlation, but it has a comparatively 
well developed positive correlation. This station is, however, dur- 
ing the months of July to November, situated on the western side of 
the center of action (the high pressure region of the South Atlan- 
tic). An increase of this pressure maximum, by increased solar 
activity, might therefore be expected to Ijring more northerly winds 
and consequently higher temperatures in this region. 

Another station, Bathurst, in Gambia, on the west coast of Africa, 
is situated well inside the tropics, in latitude 13° 24' N. 16° 36' W., 
and might consequently, according to Dr. Clayton's views, be ex- 
pected to have positive correlation ; but he finds it nevertheless to 
have a very well developed negative correlation. This is, however, 
easily understood, considering that the station is situated on the 
so'utheastern side of the North Atlantic pressure maximum, in the 
region of the northeastern trade winds. An increase of the cen- 
ter of action, by increased solar activity, will increase the trade winds 
and lower the temperature. 

At the station Zimgeru in Nigeria, 9° 49' N., and 6° 10' E., the 
correlation is, however, positive. In this region there are probably 
no very strong prevailing winds during autumn, and an increased 
solar activity may raise the temperature. The normal tempera- 
ture of this region, during the months of July to November, is 
also comparatively high for its latitude, while Bathurst has a com- 
paratively low temperature. San Diego and Sacramento, in Cali- 
fornia (in 32° 43' N. and in 38° 35' N.), are situated on the 
eastern side of the center of action (the pressure maximum of the 
North Pacific) during the months July to November, and cold 
northwesterly winds are therefore prevailing, which when increased 
by increase of the sun's activity, will lower the temperature. At 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 275 

these stations there should consequently, as a rule, be a negative 
correlation, as Dr. Clayton has found. 

Roswell, in New Mexico, has a more northerly position than San 
Diego, in 33° 24' N., 104° 27' W., far outside the tropical regions, 
but has nevertheless a positive correlation, though not much de- 
veloped. 

According to Buchan's charts [1889], the prevailing winds in this 
region during the months of July to October should be southerly 
or southeasterly, dependent on the Atlantic pressure maximum. A 
raising of this maximum, by increased solar activity, might there- 
fore be expected to raise the temperature at Roswell. But the 
positive correlation thus produced cannot be expected to be well 
developed, as the station is situated between the two centers of 
action (the pressure maxima) of the North Pacific and the North 
Atlantic. A shift in these centers of action may easily reverse the 
winds at Roswell. 

At Mauritius, situated in 20° 6' S. inside the tropical region, the 
prevailing winds are southeasterly. An increased activity of the 
winds by an increased solar activity, ought therefore to lower the 
temperature ; and we may expect to find a well developed negative 
correlation at this station, .which is also the case. 

San Isidro, Manila, in the Philippines, is situated in 15° 22' N., 
120° 53' E. The prevailing winds during the months of July to 
September are southwesterly, during November, northeasterly, and 
during October, variable, according to Alexander Buchan's maps. 
Dr. Clayton finds a well-developed positive correlation for this sta- 
tion. But at Hongkong, situated on the continent at a comparatively 
short distance to the northwest (in 22° 18' N., 114° 10' E., the 
conditions are different. The prevailing winds during July and 
August are southeasterly, during September-October-November 
northeasterly. An increase of both these kinds of winds, by in- 
creased solar activity, may be expected to lower the temperature at 
Hongkong. The southeasterly winds are sea-winds which during 
the hot season bring colder air in over the continent, while the 
temperature will rise when there is no wind or light land breezes. 
The sea-winds are also moist and will consequently bring more 
cloudiness, which will lower the daily maximum temperatures with 
which Dr. Clayton operates. We should therefore expect to find 
a negative correlation at Hongkong during the months of July to 
November, which is also the case. 



2.^6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

Entebbe in Uganda (Africa) is situated under the Equator, in 
0° 5' N. and 32° 28' E. If Dr. Clayton were right in his views, we 
should expect a very well developed positive correlation at this 
station near the Equator, especially as there is little wind. Dr. 
Clayton's investigations give, however, a positive correlation which 
is less developed than in most other places. According to our view, 
this is easily understood, considering that during the months of 
July to November there are very variable winds in this region, and 
no special direction can be said to be prevailing. 

At Haparanda, in 65° 50' N. 24° 9' E., the winds are variable 
during the months of July to November, and consequently Dr. 
Clayton's investigations give a very small and doubtful positive cor- 
relation for this station. 

At Stykkisholm in Iceland, in '65° 5' N. there are similar condi- 
tions, this station being situated near the Icelandic pressure mini- 
mum which may often change its position. Dr. Clayton's com- 
putations consequently give a very small (negative) correlation. 

At Jurjew in Russia, in 58° 22' N., and 26° 43' E., the prevailing 
winds are westerly in July and August, and more southwesterly 
in September, October, and November ; but none of these winds are 
very warm. The consequence is that Jurjew has only a very small, 
indistinct (positive) correlation. 

Valdivia in Chile, in 39° 48' S. and 73° 15' W., is situated on the 
southeastern side o'f the South Pacific pressure maximum and should 
consequently have prevailing westerly and southwesterly winds. But 
during the months July and August the winds come chiefly from the 
northwest, according to Buchan's maps, while during the months 
September, October, and November they have a more southwesterly 
direction, and should consequently be comparatively cold. Dr. Clay- 
ton's investigations give accordingly a negative correlation at Val- 
divia, though slightly developed. 

At Merida, Yucatan, in 20° 50' N. and 89° 40' W., the prevailing- 
winds are northeasterly or northerly during the months of July to 
November, and being sea-winds they might be expected to be cool- 
ing. Dr. Clayton's investigations give consequently a fairly well 
developed negative correlation for this station. 

At Suva, Fiji Islands, in the southern tropics (18° 8' S. and 
178° 26' E.) southeasterly winds are prevailing during the months 
of July to November. As these winds are comparatively cold, Dr. 
Clayton's investigations give negative correlation at this station, 
though not very well developed. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 2/7 

These examples may suffice to show that, as a general rule, it 
depends on the situation of a station, with regard to the centers of 
action of the atmosphere, whether the correlation factor of the sta- 
tion be positive or negative, i. e., whether the temperature at the 
place varies in the same direction or in the opposite direction of the 
solar activity. This proves that the fluctuations in temperature at 
the earth's surface depend greatly on the changes in the circulation 
of the atmosphere, while the latter are afifected more directly by 
the changes in solar activity. 

According to what has been stated above the shape of the normal 
isothermal lines may be expected to demonstrate the distribution of 
the positive or negative correlation between fluctuations in solar 
activity and in terrestrial temperature. 

In figure 98 we have drawn some isothermal lines showing the 
mean temperatures for August, September, and October, compiled 
from Buchan's maps [1889], and have also introduced the maximum 
values of the correlation coefficients computed by Dr. Clayton for 
his thirty stations. 

This map shows clearly that the said correlation is positive where 
the shape of the isothermal lines indicates comparatively high nor- 
mal temperatures (e. g., at Pilar in Argentina, at Zungeru in Nige- 
ria, at Zomba in South Africa, at San Isidro, Philippines, at Ja- 
cohshavn in Greenland, at Dawson in Alaska, at Laurie Island in 
60° 44' S., 44° 39' W., nay, even at St. Johns, N. B., where the 
isothermal line has a small bend towards the north). But this cor- 
relation is negative where the shape of the isothermal lines indicates 
comparatively low normal temperatures {e. g., at Sacramento and 
San Diego on the west coast of U. S. A., at Chicago, at Bathurst 
in Gambia, at Punta Arenas, on Mauritius, on the Fiji Islands, at 
Hongkong) . 

It should be kept in view that Dr. Clayton, taking it for granted 
that the fluctuations in temperature at the earth's surface, at least 
in the tropical regions, are directly affected by the fluctuations in 
solar radiation, has used for his investigations the daily maximum 
temperatures at the various stations. 

The maximum temperatures depend very much on the cloudiness 
of the season, and do not give a trustworthy indication of the mean 
daily temperature, which it would be of importance to know when 
we wish to examine the effect of the circulation of the atmosphere. 
The mean daily temperatures would probably have shown still bet- 
ter agreement with the fluctuations in the solar radiation. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 279 

EFFECT OF THE SHORT-PERIOD VARIATIONS OF SOLAR RADIATION ON 

THE PRESSURE GRADIENT AND TEMPERATURE AT 

BERGEN, NORWAY 

Dr. Abbot has kindly given us the measurements of the " solar 
constant," made at Mount Wilson during the months of June to 
September, 191 5, and June to October, 1916. The series of obser- 
vations made during the year 191 5 are especially good and complete. 
Most of the observations were made under very favorable cir- 
cumstances, and may therefore be considered to be especially trust- 
worthy. 

We have compared the changes in the " solar constant " ob- 
tained during this year with the simultaneous meterological changes 
at Bergen on the west coast of Norway (60° 23' N.). Having 
before found that the changes in temperature depend, to a very 
great extent, on the changes in the pressure, gradient, we have 
first computed the changes in the latter by taking the difference 
between the air pressure at Christiania and the air pressure at Ber- 
gen at 8 o'clock every morning. We have then computed the con- 
secutive seven-day means of the " solar constant " as well as of 
the pressure difference between Christiania and Bergen. When 
there were less than three measurements of the " solar constant " 
during seven days the values of the seven-day means were con- 
sidered as doubtful. The correlation factor r for these two sets of 
seven-day means of the " solar constant " and the pressure dif- 
ference was now computed by the following formula, worked out 
by Karl Pearson, and used by Dr. Clayton : 

We then found the following values of the correlation factor: 

CORRELATION OF SOLAR RADIATION WITH PRESSURE DIFFERENCE BE- 
TWEEN CHRISTIANIA AND BKRGEN FROM CONSECUTIVE SEVEN-DAY 
MEANS, FOR THE PERIOD JUNE 8 TO SEPTEMBER 6, 1915. 

Days following solar 

observations 01234 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15, 16 

Correlation Factor.. .22 .33 .45 -55 -61 .63 .60 .57 -Si -38 .22 .07 —.08 —.21 —.30 —.35 —.38 

These values of the correlation factor are comparatively high 
and amount to as much as 0.63 on the fifth day. This proves that 
there is a very well-developed positive correlation between the solar 
radiation and the pressure gradient between Christiania and Ber- 
gen. The maximum effect of the changes in the solar radiation 
follows five days later in the pressure diiiference. This correlation 



28o 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



factor found by us is considerably greater than those found for the 
correlation between the " solar constant " and the temperature at 
the various stations examined by Dr. Clayton. 

We have also computed the seven-day means of the mean daily 
temperature at Bergen (taken w^ith the thermograph). In figure 
99 we have plotted the consecutive seven-day means of the " solar 
constant" as obtained at Mount Wilson (curve S) of the daily 
pressure difference between Christiania and Bergen (curve B) and 
of the mean daily temperature at Bergen (curve T), for the period 
from June to September, 191 5. 

JUNE I JULV I AUGUST 




Figure 99. Curves giving tlie 7-day means in June to September, 1915. 
cf : 6" the " solar constant " ; B the pressure gradient between Bergen and 
Christiania ; T the temperature at Bergen ; V the variation of pressure from 
day to day at Bergen. The small letters along the curves indicate correspond- 
ing maxima and minima. 



The agreement between these curves is very good. The maxima 
and minima of the pressure difference (marked by letters a-n) fol- 
low mostly some days after the corresponding maxima and minima 
of the "solar constant" (marked by the same letters), while the 
corresponding maxima and minima of the daily temperature follow 
as a rule still a little later. 

As it might give an indication of the variability of the meteor- 
ological conditions we have taken the difference in pressure from 
day to day (at 8 a. m.) at Bergen, and have plotted the seven-day 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 281 

means of the values thus obtained in curve V of figure 99. This 
curve also shows a certain similarity to the curve S of the " solar 
constant," but the agreement is not as good as that of the other 
curves. 

This analysis of the conditions in 191 5 seems to prove that the 
daily changes in the " solar constant " cause changes in the dis- 
tribution of pressure which in the region of Norway occur as a rule 
some days later. And the changes thus produced in the distribu- 
tion of pressure cause changes in the temperature as a rule a day or 
two later. The probability is thus that by daily measurements of the 




Figure 100. 



solar constant it might be possible to predict meteorological changes 
several days beforehand. 

As another interesting feature may be pointed out that the curves 
of figure 99 show very distinctly a period of between 24 and 25 days 
in the solar radiation, as well as in the pressure difference between 
Christiania and Bergen and in the temperature at Bergen. There 
are also indications of a shorter period of about 12 days, which is 
especially conspicuous in curve V, representing the barometric vari- 
ability from day to day at Bergen. 

For other years for which fairly complete series of observations 
of the "solar constant " were obtained at Mount Wilson, we have 
also computed the seven-day means of the " solar constant," of the 
simultaneous temperatures at Bergen and of the pressure difiference 

19 



282 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



between Christiania and Bergen. We have plotted the values thus 
obtained in figures 100-106. The maxima and minima correspond- 
ing to each other in the different curves of the same year are marked 
with the same letters. Where a maximum has been reversed to a 
minimum or vice versa, the corresponding letter has a minus. 

The curves marked B and T show that as a rule thefe is a fairly 
go'od agreement between the changes in pressure difference be- 
tween Christiania and Bergen {B) and th'C changes in temperature 
at Bergen (T). In some cases — e. g., in June till middle of July, 

JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVtM. 




Figure 10 i. 

1908, in October, 1908, about July 24 and November 7, 1909, in 
the beginning of June and July, 1910 — the curves go, however, in 
opposite direction to each other. This might naturally be expected, 
considering that the pressure difference between Christiania and 
Bergen is not always a measure for the real barometric gradient at 
Bergen or in Norway as a whole. 

The agreement between the curves 6^ for the " solar constant," 
and the curves B and T for the pressure difference between Chris- 
tiania and Bergen and for the temperature at Bergen, is not always 
as striking as we found it in 1915. But it may be noticed that when 
the curve of the " solar constant " is more trustworthy, being based 
upon a greater number of good observations, as in 1915, the agree- 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 283 



JUNE I JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTDBER NOV. 




lODO 
BO 
60 
hO 
20 

1900 



, ' N ' 2V ' / • AJ ' 2\l 



Figure 102. 

JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER ; NOVEMBER 




' i\, ' 9\j > I 



f • /y 2V • / V 



ijWm J 




» ' ' 'y 



/'/ ' 21 



mm. 

+ 4- 

+2 



-2 



Figure 103. 




Figure 104. 




Figure 105. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 285 



ment with the two other curves is better than when the sohir obser- 
vations were less complete. 

As a rule, the agreement between the solar curves (S), and the 
temperature curves (T), and the pressure curves (B) is direct, but 
in some cases it is also inverse. This seems, for instance, to some 
extent to have been the case with the pressure-difference (but partly 
not the temperature at Bergen) in June and partly July, 1908, with 




Figure 106. 

Figures 100-106. Curves showing the 7-day means for the summer and fall 
of the year 1908, 1909, 1910, 191 1, 1913, 1914, and 1916, of: 5" the "solar con- 
stant"; B the pressure gradient (mm.) between Bergen and Christiania; T 
the temperature at Bergen; V the variation of pressure (mm.) from day to 
day at Bergen. 

The small letters of the curves indicate corresponding maxima and minima. 
A minus befpre the letter indicates inversion. 

the pressure difference and partly temperature in July, 1909, in Sep- 
tember, 19 10, in July, 1914, provided that the obtained values for 
the " solar constant " may be considered as sufficiently trustworthy 
in these cases. It seems noteworthy that during 1913 the curve 6" for 
the " solar constant " is on the whole descending, with decreasing 
values, from August to October, while the curves T and B, for tem- 
perature as well as pressure difference, are on the whole ascend- 



286 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

ing during- this period, with increasing values. In September and 
October, 1909, the values of the " solar constant " seem likewise on 
the whole to have been decreasing while the values of pressure dif- 
ference and temperature were on the whole increasing. 

j\Iost curves, the temperature and pressure curves as well as the 
solar curves, show indications of a period varying in length, mostly 
between 25 and 27 or 28 days, in most cases about 27 days. There 
are also frequent indications of a subdivision o'f this longer period 
into a shorter period of half the length. 

The above results, that the pressure gradient as well as the tem- 
perature at Bergen vary, on the whole, directly as the solar radia- 
tion, agree with our earlier results obtained by a comparison be- 
tween the monthly fluctuation in the relative numbers of sun spots, 
and the monthly fluctuations in the pressure gradient of the North 
Atlantic and in the temperature of Norway. We found (cf. fig. 92, 
curves III, IV, and V) that especially during the period 1903 to 
191 1, the fluctuations in the sun spots from month to month are 
as a rule repeated directly in the fluctuations of the pressure gradi- 
ent, and of the temperature in Norway. The latter fluctuations 
occur often a short while after those of the sun spots. We also 
found that especially during the said period there was a conspicu- 
ous period of eight months in the fluctuations in sun spots as well as 
in the fluctuations in the pressure gradient and in the temperature 
of Norway (cf. fig. 92). 

FLUCTUATIONS IN AIR PRESSURE AND SUN SPOTS STUDIED BY 
TWELVE-MONTH MEANS 

We have continued our investigations, by means of consecutive 
twelve-month means, on the fluctuations in temperature and air 
.pressure at stations in different regions of the globe. 

We much regret that for very important high-pressure as well as 
low-pressure regions of our globe there are no satisfactory series 
of barometric observations at hand. We may especially mention 
the Pacific Ocean, the tropical low-pressure region of the Atlantic, 
the high-pressure region of the South Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, 
the antarctic low-pressure regions. It is therefore not possible, 
at present, to discuss the barometric fluctuations (at the earth's sur- 
face) of the atmosphere as a whole. We have been obliged to 
limit our investigations to a cornparatively small portion of the 
globe's surface. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 287 










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288 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

In figure 107 we have plotted the twelve-month means of the 
departures of the air-pressure at various stations. The unbroken 
curves are drawn directly, while the broken curves are inverted. 
The values are departures from normals ; those for the stations of 
curves III-IX are computed for the thirty years from 1877 to 
1906. 

The curves of figure 107 show especially two very distinct types : 
the N orth-'Atlantic type (curves I to III), and what we may call the 
Indo-Maylayan South-American type (curves IV-VIII). 

The North Atlantic type of pressure curves is, in our figure, 
represented by curves I-III, from the low-pressure region (curve 

II for Stykkisholm, Iceland) and the high-pressure region (curve 

III for Ponta Delgada, the Azores) of the North Atlantic. In curve 
I is plotted the difference between the Azores pressure maximum 
and the Icelandic pressure minimum (cf. fig. 94, I). The vertical 
scale (in mm.) for curves I and II has been reduced to the half of 
that of curves III-IX. To the Atlantic curves I-III ought to be 
added the curve for the pressure difference between 30° N, 30° W 
and Sao Thiago, in the region of the NE. trade winds (see fig. 91, 
VIII). 

All these curves have a striking resemblance to each other, the 
curve of the pressure maximum (III) agreeing very closely with 
the inverted curve of the pressure minimum (II). An increase 
of pressure in the region of the Azores pressure maximum conse- 
quently coincides as a rule with a decrease of pressure in the region 
of the Icelandic pressure minimum, and vice versa, as was already 
pointed out by Hildebrandsson [1897, etc.] and Hann [1904] , Hence 
the pressure gradients are simultaneously increased or decreased 
over the whole region of the North Atlantic (cf. fig. 91, VI, VIII ; 
fig. 109, II, III). 

Unfortunately we have had no opportunity of examining any 
sufficiently long series of barometric observations from stations in- 
side the tropical low-pressure region of the Atlantic. Thus we 
do not know the nature of the barometric fluctuations in that region. 
But if we may judge from the observations at Port au Prince and 
Fort de France (in the West Indies, see fig. 71, VB and VI B) the 
pressure in the tropical Atlantic regions fluctuates chiefly directly 
as that of the Azores high-pressure region and inversely as that of 
the Icelandic minimum. [It has to be considered that pressure 
curves for stations lying outside the maximum or minimum regions 
of the North Atlantic, may show certain resemblances to the one 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 289 

or the other of the two curves II or III (fig. 107) for these two 
regions, but no perfect resemblance to either of them, because they 
are neither maximum nor minimum curves (cf. the pressure curves 
for the United States of America, fig. 74, III, V, and perhaps also 
for the West Indies, fig. 71, VB, VIB). The typical curves only 
occur in or near the real centers of action.] 

The Indo-Malayan, South American type of pressure curves, evi- 
dently characteristic for the low-pressure region of the Indian Ocean, 
and the high-pressure regions of the South Atlantic and the South 
Pacific Oceans, is represented by the inverted curves IV and V, 
figure 107, for Batavia and Bombay, and the direct curves VI, VII, 
and VIII for Santiago (Chile), Goya, and Cordoba (Argentina), 

In figure 108- similar curves from different regions of the Indian 
Ocean and the western Pacific are reproduced. No curves have 
been inverted in this figure. These curves prove that the air pres- 
sure fluctuates in the same manner and almost simultaneously over 
the greater part of the regions surrounding the Indian Ocean, from 
India (curves 8 and 9) and the Philippines (curve 11) in the north 
to southern Australia in the south. The fluctuations seem as a 
rule to occur somewhat later in southern Australia than in India 
and the Malayan region (Batavia). The fluctuations are also con- 
siderably greater in Australia than in the tropics to the north, 
(cf, curves 13-15 and curve 12). 

It is noteworthy that though southern Australia is situated in- 
side the high-pressure belt of the southern hemisphere (the mean 
pressure of the year showing a local barometric maximum) still the 
pressure there does not fluctuate inversely as that of the tropical 
low-pressure belt to the north (Batavia, Bombay), but directly in 
the same manner. 

The barometric fluctuations at Mauritius and Antananarivo 
(Madagascar), in the western Indian Ocean (curves 2 and 3) are 
of the same type as those of the northern and eastern Indian Ocean 
(cf. figs. 90 and 71) and of Australia as well as o'f the Philippines, 
■ but there are important dissimilarities as the curves 2 and 3 show. 
This may be due to the fact that these stations are near to another 
center of action. 

We do not know what the barometric fluctuations may be in the 
region of the pressure maximum of the southern Indian Ocean ; 
but curve i proves that at Cape Town situated in the high-pressure 
belt, between the pressure maximum of the Indian Ocean and that 
of the South Atlantic, the barometric fluctuations differ much from 



290 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 




NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 29I 

those of the northern and eastern Indian Ocean, and are remarkably 
smaller. They may be a mixture between the latter fluctuations 
and the inverse fluctuations occurring in the high-pressure region 
of the South Atlantic to the v^est. 

Curve 16, figure io8, giving the twelve-month means of the pres- 
sure at Stykkisholm, Iceland, shows that there is much direct simi- 
larity between the barometric fluctuations of the Icelandic pressure 
minimum and those of the Indo-Malayan low-pressure region, and 
the Australian high-pressure region, situated very nearly anti- 
podically. But the fluctuation in the Icelandic region is very much 
greater. This may probably be due to the fact that the area of the 
Icelandic pressure minimum is very small as compared with that 
of the Indo-Malayan, Australian region. 

If we go only short distances outside the area of the Icelandic 
minimum, e. g., to Aberdeen (Scotland), or to Norway, or to the 
west coast of Greenland the barometric fluctuations diflfer very 
much from those of Stykkisholm, and also from those of Ponta 
Delgada ; the reason being that these regions are outside the cen- 
ters of action and their fluctuations belong to a mixed type. 

The pressure curves VI, VII, and VIII (fig. 107) for Santiago 
in Chile, Goya and Cordoba in Argentina, show great similarity to 
the inverted curves IV and V for Batavia and Bombay. This is 
in perfect accordance with what the two Lockyers liave found, as 
we have mentioned in chapter X. 

The three South American stations are in the high-pressure belt 
of the southern hemisphere between the maxima of the South Atlan- 
tic and the South Pacific. The curve of Santiago shows the most 
typical agreement with those of Batavia and Bombay, possibly 
because it is nearer to the center of action, the annual pressure 
maximum of the South Pacific, than the two Argentina stations are 
to that of the South Atlantic. 

The two types of curves {e. g., fig. 107, curve VI, and curves I-III ; 
fig. 108, curve 16 and curves 2-15 show on the whole much similarity 
to each other, but also dissimilarities, e. g., in the years 1877-78 
(marked E), 1884-85, 1892-93, and partly 1894-95, though, e. g., 
in 1894-96 the curve of Stykkisholm agrees remarkably well with 
those of southern Australia (cf. fig. 108, curves 14, 15. 16). 

We have also made an analysis of the yearly barometric changes 
in Siberia where, however, the conditions differ greatly during the 
year, there being a high barometric maximum in southern central 
Siberia and in Mongolia, in the winter, but a minimum in the 



292 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

summer. The winter maximum is, however, predominating, and 
taking the mean distribution of pressure during the whole year 
there is a barometric maximum over central Siberia and Mongolia, 
south of Lake Baikal. 

The pressure curve for Ekaterinburg (fig. 107, IX) shows in 
most years more similarity to the pressure curve of Ponta Delgada 
than to the inverted curves for Batavia and Bombay. 

It was mentioned in chapter X that according to Blanford's in- 
vestigations the winter pressure in western Siberia and Russia 
changes inversely as the pressure in the Indo-Malayan area, while 
the summer pressure, especially at Ekaterinburg and Barnaul, varies 
greatly in the same direction. 

In figure 109 we have given the barometric curves, smoothed by 
twelve-month means, for seven stations in different regions of 
Siberia and eastern Russia, east of the Ural mountains. The curves 
give the departures from normals computed for the thirty years 
from 1877 to 1906. 

These curves show that the barometric changes are much the 
same over the greater part of eastern Russia and western Siberia. 
The curves from eastern Siberia, for Irkutsk and Nerchinskii 
(curves VI and VII) differ, however, somewhat from the others. 
The barometric curve for Irkutsk (fig. 109, VI) exhibits a remark- 
able and rather doubtful difference between the barometric values 
before and after 1887. The exceptionally great maximum in 1877- 
78 seems especially suspicious. It may, however, be noteworthy 
that at this time there was a striking disagreement between the 
Atlantic curves (Ponta Delgada, fig. 107, III) and the curves of 
the Indian Ocean and South America, as was mentioned before. 

The total pressure of the atmosphere being constant, an increase 
of pressure in one region of the globe must be counterbalanced by 
a corresponding decrease in other regions. Our investigations 
seem to indicate a certain regularity in the barometric fluctuations 
in this way: that an increase of pressure in one high-pressure 
region coincides more or less with simultaneous increases in other 
high-pressure regions of the globe, and with simultaneous decreases 
of pressure in the low-pressure regions, and vice versa. 

We have found that the barometric fluctuations of the Icelandic 
pressure minimum coincides as a rule not only with the barometric 
fluctuations of the low-pressure regio'n of the Indian Ocean and the 
Indo-Malayan region, but also with those of Australia, where there 
is, to some extent, a high-pressure region. 



NO. 4 TEMTERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 293 




294 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

The barometric fluctuations of the North Atlantic high-pressure 
region (the Azores) coincide as a rule with similar fluctuations in 
the South American high-pressure region (probably also in that of 
the South Pacific and the South Atlantic) and to some extent also 
with the fluctuations in Siberia. 

It has to be considered that the distribution of pressure, and the 
situation of maximum and minimum are subject to great alterations 
summer and winter in Asia as well as in the tropical regions of the 
Indian Ocean and the Indo-Malayan region; which is not the case 
in the Atlantic, in the Pacific, and also in the southern Indian Ocean. 
Hence we cannot expect the twelve-month means of the former 
regions to give full agreement with those of the latter regions. 

The curves of figures 107 and 108 demonstrate clearly that the 
pressure changes are much smaller in the tropical regions than in 
higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere.^ This may to some 
extent be due to the fact that the tropical low-pressure belt has more 
regular conditions and a much greater area than the pressure 
maxima and pressure minima of the northern hemisphere. 

In the high-pressure belt of the southern hemisphere, the baro- 
metric changes at the South American stations (fig. 107, VI, VII, 
VIII) are greater than the fluctuations shown by the tropical curves 
(IV and V), but not as great as the fluctuations shown by the 
curves III and II for the pressure maximum (Ponta Delgada), and 
pressure minimum (Stykkisholm) of the North Atlantic. The ex- 
planation may be, on the one. hand, that the high-pressure belt of 
the southern hemisphere is not as extensive as the low-pressure 
belt of the tropical regions, but on the other hand, the barometric 
conditions are more uniform in the southern hemisphere than they 
are in the northern hemisphere, where there is less ocean. 

According to our earlier investigations we might expect that an 
increased solar activity would cause an increased circulation of the 
terrestrial atmosphere, raising the barometric maxima and lowering 
the minima, at least in some regions. We have found this to be 
the case for the short periods of some few days, and also for those 
of about two weeks and of four weeks. We have also found it to 
hold good for the eleven-year sun spot period, if the fluctuations in 
the relative number of sun spots or in the daily variations of mag- 
netic declination may be taken as measures for the fluctuations in 
solar activity. 



^ It should be noted that the vertical scale (in mm.) for curves I and II is 
reduced to half the size of the scale of curves III-IX. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 295 

If the daily number of solar prominences be taken as a measure of 
solar activity, we obtain the same result for the eleven-year period 
(cf. figs. 69 and 70). But in the shorter periods of a few years, 
the atmospheric circulation seems to fluctuate inversely as the num- 
ber of prominences, according to the observations at the Roman 
observatory. This may be seen in figures 107 and no, where the 
inverted curves R and V, respectively, represent the departures 
of the daily number of prominences observed at Rome (cf. also 
fig. 70, B and RC). The same thing was practically found by the 
two Lockyers [1902, 1904] and by Bigelow [1908], that, e. g., the 
pressure of Bombay should fluctuate directly as the solar promi- 
nences, and the pressure at Cordoba inversely. 

Upon closer examination of the curves in figures 107 and no 
we find, however, that the barometric variations demonstrated by 
these curves frequently occur earlier than the corresponding varia- 
tions exhibited by the curve of prominences, and besides it is only 
the middle part of the inverted curve R, figure 107, between the 
years 1885 and 1895, that agrees with the barometric curves. 

It has also to be considered that the observations of prominences 
made at Palermo and Catania differ much from the Roman obser- 
vations. 

It is the Roman observations that have been used by the Lockyers 
(and also chiefly by Bigelow) ^ and they have paid most attention 
to the above mentioned years where there seems to be a remarkable 
agreement between the curve of prominences and the barometric 
curves. This explains their unexpected results. 
■ By special treatment of the relative numbers we have been able 
to demonstrate a few-years period in the sun spots, similar to those 
found by the Lockyers, and by Bigelow in the prominences. We 
consider it probable that the sun spots give a more trustworthy 
measure of the solar activity, especially as the variations of sun 
spots agree remarkably well with the variations in terrestrial mag- 
netism, which is probably a sensitive measure of the changes in the 
amount of solar energy received by our globe. 

The curves S and M, in figure 107, showing the fluctuations in 
sun spots and in the daily variations of the magnetic declination 
at Christiania, have been formed by plotting, on squared paper, the 
consecutive twelve-month means, from which have been subtracted 



^As was mentioned before, Mr. Bigelow made, however, a serious mistake 
in his computations of the mean daily number of prominences, by not dividing 
the numbers observed in each month by the numbers of days of observation. 



296 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

the thirty-six-month means, in order to eliminate the longer periods 
(cf. fig. 94, MK, fig. 96, I, III). 

There is undoubtedly to a certain extent, an agreement between 
these two curves and the barometric curves I-IX (fig. 107) for 
high-pressure regions as well as low-pressure regions of our globe. 
In some years the maxima or minima of the solar and magnetic 
curves are found in all barometric curves I-IX (e. g., the maxima 
C, K, R, S, the minima h, r) , while in other years the maxima and 
minima of curves S and M are only found in some barometric 
curves (e. g., the maxima B, E, G, H, L, M, P, etc). 

It may be noticed that according to all these curves the baro- 
metric fluctuations occur always somewhat later, and often several 
months later, than the corresponding fluctuations in sun spots, and 
in magnetic declination at Christiania. 

On the other hand it may also be noticed that some barometric 
fluctuations, especially the maximum of the high-pressure regions 
(fig. 107) and the minimum of the low-pressure regions (fig. 108) 
of 1878-79, and the minimum of the high-pressure regions and the 
maximum of the low-pressure regions of 1880-81, do not correspond 
to any similar fluctuations in sun spots and magnetic declination, as 
exhibited by our curves in figure 107, though there may possibly be 
some slight indications in curve M. 

On the whole, however, figure 107 demonstrates that there is the 
same rhythm in the barometric fluctuations as in the fluctuations of 
sun spots and magnetic declination, and we may infer that an in- 
crease of solar activity causes on the average an increase of atmos- 
pheric circulation of our globe by raising the chief barometric 
maxima and lowering the chief minima. 

FLUCTUATIONS IN TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES COMPARED WITH 

FLUCTUATIONS IN AIR PRESSURE AND SOLAR RADIATION 

STUDIED BY TWELVE-MONTH MEANS 

According to the results of our investigations, as described before 
in this paper, the fluctuations in temperature at the earth's surface 
are chiefly due to fluctuations in the atmospheric circulation, which 
again are caused by variations in solar radiation. The nature of 
the changes of temperature at the various stations, whether posi- 
tive or negative, depends on the situation of the station in relation 
to the barometric centers of action. In regions where an in- 
creased activity of the centers of action will cause more cooling 
winds, the effect will naturally be a lowering of temperature, and 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTIT ATLANTIC 297 

vice versa {c. g., in the regions of the NE trade winds outside north- 
western Africa (cf. fig. no, III, IV). But in regions' where an 
increased activity of the barometric centers of action will produce 
more warm winds the effect will be higher temperatures, and vice 
versa {e. g., in Norway). 

Taking it generally, we may therefore expect that in regions where 
the normal annual temperature is comparatively high for its lati- 
tude (or at least higher than in neighboring regions) an increased 
atmospheric circulation should, as a rule, have a warming effect, 
while in regions where the normal annual temperature is lower 
than that of the latitude it should have a cooling effect. 

In figure in we have given the temperature curves, smoothed by 
twelve-month means, for several stations from different regions of 
the globe. The broken curves are inverted, while the others are 
direct. The curves show departures from normals that for the 
stations of curves VIII-X are computed for the thirty years 1877- 
1906. 

At the top of the figure we have reproduced the curves of the 
barometric departures, smoothed by twelve-months means, at Batavia 
(curve I, inverted) at Ponta Delgada (curve II), and for the dif- 
ference between the pressure maximum (Azores) and the pressure 
minimum (Icelandic) of the North Atlantic (curve III). 

In Norway there are prevailing southwesterly winds during the 
year, and the temperature is much higher than for any other region 
of corresponding latitudes. This is due to the warm oceanic cur- 
rent outside its coasts and to the prevailing winds. The fluctuations 
in the temperature of Norway (curve IV) agree remarkably well 
with the barometric variations at Ponta Delgada (curve II) as also 
with the variations of the pressure gradient of the North Atlantic 
(curve III, and with the inverse barometric variations at Styk- 
kisholm (see figs. 91, 95, and 108), as also with the inverse variations 
of the pressure gradient in the region of the NE. trade winds (see 
fig. no, I and III). 

What a decisive influence the situation of a station, in relation to 
the barometric center of action, has on the nature of its temperature 
variations is demonstrated by the striking difference between the 
temperature variations at stations lying no farther apart than the 
Azores on the northern side of the Azores pressure maximum and 
Madeira on its southeastern side, as well as the Cape Verde Islands 
to the south of it. The temperature in the Azores (Angra and 
Ponta Delgada) fluctuate as a rule inversely as the temperature in 



298 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 




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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



Funchal (Madeira) and St. Vincents (Cape Verde Islands), see 
figure 112. 

• Batavia is in a tropical region where, owing to predominating 
oceanic influence, the mean annual temperature is comparatively 
low, and where an increase of atmospheric circulation {i. e., a lower- 
ing of pressure) will generally lower the temperature. Hence the 
inverted curve V, in figure iii, for the temperature at Batavia agrees 
with the inverted curve I for the pressure at Batavia (cf. the in- 
verse agreement between temperature at Batavia and pressure gradi- 
ent of India, fig. 91, II, III) and also in some years with the direct 
curve II for the high-pressure region at Ponta Delgada. 



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Verde Islands. [Arctowski, 1914.] 



Near the Pacific Coast of the United States the normal isothermal 
lines for the year turn sharply to the south for a distance of 20° of 
latitude or more, partly running almost parallel to the coast. 

This region is to the east of the well developed barometric maxi- 
mum of the North Pacific, and is under the predominating influence 
of this center of action, which has naturally a tendency to cause 
northerly, comparatively cold winds along the coast west of the 
mountains, as well as a cold sea current (with cold deep water lifted 
towards the sea-surface on its left-hand side) in the ocean outside. 
An increase of the activity of the center of action will therefore, 
as a rule, lower the temperature of the Pacific States, and vice 
versa. We consequently find that the inverted curve VI (fig. Ill) 
for the temperature of the Pacific states agrees on the whole well 
with the barometric curve II for Ponta Delgada, and the tempera- 
ture-curve IV for Norway, as well as the inverted curves I and V 
for the pressure and temperature at Batavia. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 3OI 

It has, however, to be considered that immediately to the east of 
the Pacific States there is a comparatively very warm region in the 
western United States, where the normal isobaric lines for the year 
show comparatively low mean pressure, dividing between the North 
Atlantic high-pressure region to the east, and the North Pacific high- 
pressure region to the west. A shifting in the development and 
extension of these centers of action might easily invert the effects 
of the changes in atmospheric circulation in the temperature in these 
boundary regions. We may therefore expect that the agreement 
between the fluctuations in the temperature of the Pacific states, and 
the fluctuations of the barometric centers of action are sometimes 
inverted. This agrees with what we have already pointed out before 
(cf. fig. 75). - 

The region on the northern and northwestern side of the Mexi- 
can Gulf is chiefly under the influence of the North Atlantic high 
pressure center to the east, and an increase of the activity of this 
center may therefore, during a great part of the year, affect in- 
creased easterly and southeasterly winds with a rise of tempera- 
ture, and vice versa. The temperature curve VII (fig. iii) for the 
Gulf states therefore show much similarity to the barometric curve 
II for Ponta Delgada, and with the inverted barometric curve I for 
Batavia. As, however, the Gulf states are in a barometric boundary 
region these agreements may sometimes be inverted as, for instance, 
in the years after 1901. 

At Cordoha, in Argentina, the normal isothermal lines for the year 
go comparatively far south. This region has a comparatively warm 
climate, being situated to the west of the South Atlantic high-pres- 
sure center. A warm sea current is running southward outside the 
coast. An increase of the activity of the South Atlantic center of 
action may therefore be expected to increase the northeastern warm 
winds, and to raise the temperature. The temperature curve VIII 
(fig. Ill) for Cordoba shows, on the whole, agreement with the 
barometric curve II for Ponta Delgada, and the inverted curve I for 
Batavia, but the maxima and minima occur often later at Cordoba 
than the corresponding maxima and minima in the other regions. 

On the east coast of Asia the normal annual temperature is com- 
paratively low, owing to the situation to the east of the barometric 
high-pressure center of inner Asia, causing much northerly wind 
along this coast, while western Siberia, to the west of the Asiatic 
high-pressure center, has much higher yearly temperatures, owing 
to more southerly winds. Changes in the activity of the Asiatic 



302 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

center of action may therefore be expected to have opposite eftects 
on the temperature to the east and west of the center. The tempera- 
ture curves for Vladivostok (the inverted curve IX, fig. iii) and 
for Barnaul (curve X) show that this is to a great extent the case. 
These curves also show some agreement with the barometric curves 
(I and II) for Batavia and Ponta Delgada, and with the other tem- 
perature curves. As, however, there are such great changes in the 
barometric conditions in inner Asia during the year, there being a 
great minimum in the summer and a great maximum in the winter, 
we cannot expect this agreement to be very close, and as will be 
mentioned later, it is not only the changes in the horizontal circula- 
tion of the atmosphere that are of importance for the thermal 
fluctuations, especially not in the regions of pressure maxima in 
higher latitudes. 

In figure 113 are given the temperature curves, smoothed by 
twelve-month means, for eight stations in different regions of Siberia 
and eastern Russia (east of the Ural). The values are departures 
from normals computed for the thirty years 1877- 1906. The fluc- 
tuations demonstrated by the curves show a gradual transition from 
the one region to the other, until the temperature fluctuations in 
eastern Siberia, at Vladivostok, (curve VIII), and less at Nerchinskii 
(curve VII), go more or less in the opposite direction to those in 
western Siberia and eastern Russia, at Barnaul, Ekaterinburg, 
Nichne Tagilsk, and Bogoslovsk. 

It has, however, to be considered that the changes in temperature 
at the earth's surface may not depend solely on the horizontal cir- 
culation of the atmosphere, but also to some extent on its vertical 
circulation. For instance, by a general increase of the atmospheric 
circulation, there is a descending movement of the air, with an in- 
crease of pressure, in the high-pressure regions, and an ascending 
movement of the air, with a decrease of pressure, in the low-pres- 
sure regions. According to the actual vertical distribution of tem- 
perature in the atmosphere, these vertical movements should have 
a tendency to raise the temperature in the high-pressure regions, 
and to lower the temperature in the low-pressure regions, if it were 
not for the effect of the horizontal air movements and also other 
influences, in some regions, which may go in the opposite direction. 

The increase of pressure with descending air movements, in a 
high-pressure region will, on the other hand, give relatively calm 
weather with a clear sky. During the winter in the temperate and 
cold regions, this will increase the radiation of heat from the earth, 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 303 




304 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

and will lower the temperature, while it may have an opposite effect 
in the tropical regions, where a clear sky with calm weather will 
raise the temperature, by increasing the effect of the insolation. 

Hence we cannot expect to find any perfect agreement between 
the fluctuations in temperature and fluctuations in the barometric 
gradient, i. e., in the horizontal atmospheric circulation, as there are 
various other conditions that influence the temperature at the earth's 
surface, especially in the regions of the barometric centers of action 
in higher latitudes. 

We might expect the agreement between the fluctuations in 
horizontal circulation and in temperature to be more complete in 
regions lying between the barometric centers of action, than in 
regions near these centers. Our investigations also seem to prove 
that such is the case: e. g., the variations in temperature in 
Norway show an almost com.plete agreement with the variations 
in the barpmetric gradient of the North" Atlantic (and the variations 
in pressure at Ponta Delgada, and the inverse variations at Styk- 
kisholm) while the variations in temperature in Iceland and the 
Azores show no good agreement with the barometric variations, 
neither one way nor the other. 

As was pointed out before, it has also to be taken into considera- 
tion that the barometric centers of action may evidently shift their 
position or be divided, often for some length of time, and then the 
effect of the barometric changes on the temperature may in some 
regions be inverted during this period. 

It is probable that changes in the sun's radiation may cause 
changes in the transparency of the terrestrial atmosphere, which 
again will affect the temperature in the various strata of the atmos- 
phere, as well as at the earth's surface. 

We have not here mentioned that changes in the sun's radia- 
tion of heat may naturally directly affect the temperature at the 
earth's surface, but these direct effects are evidently of subordinate 
importance as compared with the above mentioned indirect effects. 

We have already pointed out as a mistake of most previous 
authors to suppose the temperature at the earth's surface to be a 
measure for the temperature of the terrestrial atmosphere, and con- 
sequently also for the variations in the quantity of heat received 
from the sun. It has to be considered that 40 per cent of the solar 
heat energy that reaches the outer layers o'f our atmosphere are 
reflected to space, and are absolutely of no account for the terres- 
trial temperature. Of the 60 per cent of the solar heat energy that 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 305 

actually penetrates into our atmosphere, it is only about one third, 
or a little more than 20 per cent of the total solar heat energy, 
reaching- our outer atmosphere, that penetrates to the earth and is 
absorbed directly to produce heat on its solid and liquid surfaces 
[cf. Abbot, 1917]. The rest of the 60 per cent of energy is ab- 
sorbed in the atmosphere itself. Any change in the solar radiation 
of energy must consequently have a much greater effect on the 
atmosphere as a total, than at the surface of the earth. 

The greater part of the solar energy received by our planet must 
naturally be absorbed in the troposphere, as it represents by far the 
greatest mass of the atmosphere. 

It is this continuous supply of solar energy that creates the 
circulation of the atmosphere. Any change in this supply must 
consequently cause changes in the circulation. An increased supply 
of energy will naturally cause an increased circulation, and vice 
versa. The atmospheric circulation is due to differences in pressure, 
and changes in the circulation must consequently be due to changes 
in the distribution of pressure. At the earth's surface we may 
therefore expect to see the first effect of changes in solar radiation 
in the pressure, as we have really also seen in many cases {e. g., 
at Batavia). The results of all our investigations seem to agree 
that the effect of the variations in solar radiation are first observed 
in the distribution of pressure, when the observations are made at 
the earth's surface. 

The explanation is probably : Changes in the solar radiation 
cause temperature changes in the atmosphere, chiefly in the tropos- 
phere, and at heights that may possibly to some extent be deter- 
mined by the cloud-formation. 

The temperature changes in these layers of the atmosphere will 
cause movements of the air, which will also cause changes in the 
distribution of pressure at the earth's surface, and disturbances in 
the lower strata of the troposphere. An increased supply of energy 
will cause increased movement in the atmosphere, and this will 
again effect the temperature at the earth's surface, differently in 
the different regions, as we have mentioned before. 



APPENDIX I 

TEMPERATURE DEPARTURES FOR FORTY-SEVEN INLAND 
STATIONS, 1875-1910 

Communicated by C. G. Abbot 

director, smithsonian astrophysical observatory 

In Volume 2 of Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the 
Smithsonian Institution (Washington, 1908) an investigation of 
temperature departures was made with a view to see if notable 
anomalies occurred simultaneously and generally over the earth, such 
as might reasonably be ascribed to solar variations. At about the 
same time Professor Simon Newcomb published ^ an investigation 
with a similar aim. These investigations differed radically in method. 

In the Smithsonian investigation care was taken to exclude coast 
and island stations, and to employ inland stations as uniformly dis- 
tributed over the continents as the observational data allowed. 
Stations under oceanic influence or control, though their records 
were of longer standing and generally more accurate, were thought 
unsuitable, because the temperature effects of short interval solar 
changes, if such there are, would be greatly reduced at such stations. 
Furthermore, being unequally retarded, they would be non-syn- 
chronous, so that in a general mean they might altogether disappear. 
Ordinary graphical methods of exposing the results were employed. 
The stations were combined in groups according to location. Aver- 
age departures and probable errors for these groups were computed 
in the usual way. The group results were combined into a grand 
average and probable error, and all these results were plotted as 
functions of time, from 1875 to 1905. 

In Professor Newcomb's work the stations employed were mostly 
of an island or coast character. To illustrate how thoroughly some 
were under oceanic control, among them was Apia, Samoa, where 
the seasonal change from winter to summer ranges but i°.i centi- 
grade, as compared with 14°. 2 at Timbuktu and generally about 
6° range at most inland stations where equal yearly changes of 
insolation outside the atmosphere occur. In his discussion Pro- 
fessor Newcomb devised and employed a very ingenious mathemati- 



^ Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. Philadelphia, Vol. 21, 1908. 

307 



308 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 

cal method of correlation, which though somewhat tedious, gave 
results wholly free from personal bias. The method answered the 
question: Does a coincidence of departures from normal tempera- 
tures, indicating a common cause, appear from the records of the 
investigated stations ? His method did not indicate for non-periodic 
changes, when such changes took place, or how great their mag- 
nitudes. 

Some of the conclusions from these two investigations were as 
follows : 

Smithsonian Newcomb 

1. Higher temperatures prevail at i. Higher temperatures prevail at 
sun spot minimum. sun spot minimum. 

2. An increase of loo Wolf, num- 2. Average sun spot maxima since 
bers is attended by about 1° C. de- 1840 have been attended by about 
crease ot temperature. t)°2.6 decrease of temperature. 

3. Indications of vi^ide-spread coin- 3. " Apart from this regular fluctua- 
cidental short interval temperature tion with the solar spots, and this pos- 
fluctuations, reasonably attributable sible more or less irregular fluctua- 
to solar variations, are found, but not tion in a period of a few years, the 
without conflicting evidence. sun's radiation is subject to no change 

sufficient to produce any measurable 
eff^ect upon terrestrial temperatures." 

Since these results were published, short interval irregular solar 
variation of several per cent range has been established. The vari- 
ability of the sun is now confirmed^ by (a) Mount Wilson, Cali- 
fornia, observations of the " solar constant," (b) comparison of 
Mount Wilson and Bassour, Algeria, observations, (c) comparison 
of Mount Wilson and Arequipa, Peru, observations, (d) compari- 
son of Mount Wilson and magnetic observations, (e) comparison 
of Mount Wilson " solar-constant " work with Mount Wilson 
" solar-contrast " work. The cumulative effect of this evidence is 
overwhelming. Besides this it has been shown by H. H. Clayton 
that correlations exist between fluctuations of solar radiation and 
changes of terrestrial temperature and pressure. These correla- 
tions are positive for some stations, but negative for others, and 
almost lacking at still others. This explains at once why such inves- 
tigations as those we have been discussing could not with certainty 
exhibit strong evidences of short interval solar variability. Owing 
to complexities not yet understood, brief intervals of higher solar 



^ See Annals of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, 3 ; Smith- 
sonian Miscellaneous Collections, 65, Nos. 4 and 9; and 66, No. S; Terrestrial 
Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 20, 143, 1915. 

^ Smithsonian Misc. Coll. Vol. 68, No. 3, 1917. 



NO. 4 TEMTERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 3O9 

radiation produce increased temperatures at some stations, but de- 
creased temperature at others, and at some stations little tempera- 
ture change at all. 

Hence it is necessary to treat the subject more in detail. Indi- 
vidual stations must be studied by themselves. In order to aid those 
who wish to undertake such investigations it seems worth while to 
publish in exteiuo the temperature departures found for the 47 sta- 
tions employed in the Smithsonian publication of 1908. These were 
collected from the Library of the United States Weather Bureau, 
and much aid was furnished by the officials there, especially by Pro- 
fessor Kimball and Professor Talrnan, in the selection and collection 
of the data. 

We give below the temperature departures from normals as pub- 
lished officially, or as computed by us from available data. The 
latitudes, longitudes, altitudes, and normal temperatures of each sta- 
tion are given at the head of each table. Monthly departures, com- 
puted from all available data extend generally over the time interval 
1875 to 1910. As we explained in Volume II of the Annals, after 
departures from " mean " temperatures had been obtained for many 
stations in Asia and Europe, difficulty in computing " mean " tem- 
peratures was encountered in many instances. This led us at the time 
to employ " maximum " temperatures for many stations, as being 
more independent of changes in hours of observing. But we now 
regret that we did not employ means of " maximum " and " mini- 
mum " temperatures where " mean " temperatures were inconveni- 
ent. Although this would have increased the work of taking depar- 
tures, the function is one which is less dependent on cloudiness than 
" maximum " temperatures, and more representative of temperature 
conditions. The footnotes indicate the conditions as regards latitude, 
longitude, and normals, whether north or south, east or west, 
" mean " or " maximum," Centigrade or Fahrenheit. 



310 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 






^ U!34UOJtU30ia: 



0\\0 CO":? 



l + l T++ MM I ++++++[ 1 + 



?•• 



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■^fOCOCOC^ M coo (^ rococo CO'O HtWMPjTtcJi-H • I •CO'^wc^ 

I M + H-+I + I++I + M++M+ +I++ 



VOA 



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+ 1 I ' I ' I + 1 + 1 +++ 1 +++ 1 ++ 1 + I 1 + 



^ SJ3}E_^ iCpa 



M 0) to N 
\0 W « O) 



< VO 0\ 0\ to Ti-CO tONOmOvi-iONOOM-^nTj-OO 



+ T+I + I+++I I I T+I++T T I- 



fq sSuiJdg 33;iv 



00 "^ 
to to tx t># 

to to U^OO 



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• c< in " to to d tovd 'a-pidtotOMTJ-dwONt^Mod ■*od d 

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rfpj o^ -^w coo wind Ti-tN,M doo*o« o tJ-iococotJ*w pJvo co 

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93{jnog 



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::::!+ M M + MI ++ I I + M ++++++++ I ++ 



Euapjj 



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:+ I I I I I H-+M-I l + l l + l I++++ +1+ + + 



suuaXaijQ 



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i^ -^ M r-1 Tg- o t% tNOO tooo o\oo tooo o tx w ro\D o\ m to fo (^q rr t^^ t^oo to^o m ^^ r^ m -^ 

T+++++I+I iiiiT+T+iiiii I+++T l+l 1+T+1+ 



aSpoQ 



00 01 T3-COIXM 0\t^vO totomt-t fO^ 01 01 M txio tooo ol OmO 0\^t^-^0\w too 01 (S 

T+i+i+i+i iTT+i+i I +++ I + 1 ++++++ I +++++ 



00 UO:jJlUB_s. „ „ f^S;^ 



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r^ aJOdaAsaqg 



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l+l 1 +1 + M li+l ++ M ++ II I++++ I I +++++ 



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U-) smo'j 'IS 



o >-t o 01 -^vo o MOO ioa*iOM\o 01 ^xfo^s^N tovo 01 to-^t*^ mio'-' m rtoo lomoi o o 

1+ +I+T+1 I I I + 1 +++ 1 I + 1 + 1 ++++ 1 + 1 I+++ 



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> to 0} tovo tHmOlvOMCOMOvO n-VO -^Olt-i-rfTj-OwOlMOl toVO N O M Tj" '-' 

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CO Sjnqs;;i<j 



t^O\tOM-<^Tl-tO0101mMtO0l011on01rJ-OI-^tO'-tTl-rl*»HTj-iHMOlO 'd-oo vo o 10 o 

l + 1 + l + l + l I I l + l + + + iT + 1 1! ++++ I I I ++ + 



c^^ jCuBqiy 



•^t^. CO 



0\ ITN^VO OCOt^-^COOl 00 N wOOl^t^w MO^cOw-^M wiHTfi-i w Mts. COOO O CO CO N 

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dwMtHodwoOWwMOCOOwMOOOwOpOOCOOWOwwQMdwO 

+ 1 + 1 l + l +++++++ T I M I + 1 TT+++ I + II I T+ ++ 



•n c ^ >-< 



nl lovo r^oo o\ o M 0] to Ti- m\o t^co ci o -< oi to tj- ii~-vo t^co o\ o ^ 01 o^ t^ mvo t^oo 0\ o 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 3II 






' i + iT' 1T++I + I+ ++++ l+TTTi I ' + 1T1T 



mr* « 



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g pEaSipaq-Bsii^ • c^« S"^ 



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++T I T I + I ++++ l + l I I ++ I +++ I ++++T+ I +++ 



. txso w N o omTi-tN.oioNO\N Tt-vo '^ M o\oo t^ bs.00 i^TfMOO'^inWM'^ iN.pj 
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+1+ +I+I+I ii+T T+I+++I++++ 



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1 + 1+ + +T + T -r . y . . . r 



l+l ++I+T+T+++T+ I+++ ++T+ 



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'dv^(;i rN.M»-i p tj-on co»- 



m p o\ 'tr ts. ^s p -^vo n »nco -^ o. 

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>hOO £- 



I lovo ^ o in txvo t% 



d 

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312 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 



;3U!3a JBBJO o^ 



uwiuojuiaoij^ °4 



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^10"*c^^oot^oc^^m^oo^^n^od coo o 
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r+^ 



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01 COTfCOC^ QiOlN.0 O C^ ►-* 0100 "N lON ^01 CO^l 

I I I ++T I ++++ I I ++ I 1++ 1 + 






)cofo^s.^^.^^1 o\o\ih rs.cotN.o o\c^ covo w m m . \o 



+++ I ' I ' I ++ I +++ I I +++++ I I T I M I + 



n O **5 M IT) -^ \ri\o t<K rooo TfTi-0\tNiMi-(00(St-tio • 
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I I I I + I +++ l + l + l +++++ I + 



sauudg 30IIV 



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• coMooivooi+oflc^^ooiocodcoooiiowioioi-to'^o 

++I I+1+I++I I++T i+i I++I+ II 



•ooorocq 'tj-r^cst^M o' 



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3JBI0 V 



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+ + 1 + I 1 I 1 + II++I I I I++++I I I I 



umbtim^Q °4 



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I I + I I II T I + I +++++ I ++ I ++++ I I 



35jjnog °ro 



. lO •-< •-' moo 0\'-' •-< OVOOO'OyD ts-lN^ON^i-Cvi li^ Tj-00 lO 00 CO t^ ^ 

^00 00 dvd'^mcoiN.tN.o\oi « d oi co oo^d oi m w oi m '^ m d\o6 

++ 1 I + 1 ++++ I ++ I +++++ I ++++++ 



U0SJE3 



•++ 11+ I++ I +++ I +T+ 



I I 



Euin^ K. 



i+T+TTT i+r+' 



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• Tj- M tN.00 tN. -^VO CO li-jvo *0 MO'OtHOl PICOM O^-'ts.MM (MOOMDt^fO-^ 

•++ 1 I ++T++ iT +T I ++++T 1+++1++++1 



SJIE^; ;iBS 



M fo o ^n\o vovovo c?\oi 01 o Mincoo oio 1*^00 coioM-coTft-t o li^fOT^^-t w o cooi 01 

++ ++ 1 + 1 I I ++++ I I I I 1+1 + 1+ +T++I+++I 



OSEd IH ^ 



I + I +++++ ++ M I I ++ I + + I + I I +8 I I 



3UU9A91JQ 



01 ts.00 vovo 01 oivovocooioo ■rs*'-i c^cow wmiOTi-woo cow coti-oi o^ovd o looi 1 

I++++I++ I I I+-+I + I + I 1 i+i + Ti 1+T+1++++ 



jjDjBmsja g 



T^ xn 0^^0 rooo OtI-mmVOP) c^^fOMu^^^MOOOOMOO cO O\00 -^ 01 o O m 01 rq -"i-vo 01 IT) 

T1++1+ + 1 T I + T++ 11 + 1 + 1 + I + 1 1+ 1T1++++1 



sSpod ^ 



01 TT TT^ 01 tX iN. 0\^ u^O COOO\TrM'HMOO\tN.ON'-'t^01O01Ot^t>. COVO 00 VO 0\ ► 

I+++++I+III+ + 1 +++ ii+i+T I I+T++++ 



uo;jiuB_^ tj 



irioo 10 lOVO N m ul t^ m -"^ C^ u^vo 01 -^ 10 -^ 01 • • • -O\i/lM-^M0OMM00t^iOiOM 

T+++++ 1 ++ 1 I + I +++ I + I '••"••+ 1 +++ 1 I 1 +++++ 



;jocl3A3aijs g 



fO\o MOMOicor^MTToOMr^oiorN ro^o m cooi m ^coom coiooo-^oi m iomi/i* 

+++ ++ 1 + I + I +++ ++++ 1 T+++T I I 1 I +T I + 1 + 



9SS0J3 Bq t;- 



oo^o mt^c^ rxM iricoM r^mo m r^TTMvo oooi lOTroi oi o^o iom ooovo m co-<^Troi 

T+++++ 1 + 1 I I + 11 + i + i + i +++1 I I 1 11++++1 



sino-j -^s M 



vo c\t^Ti-ooo TfM cocoii^ootNM coinM t1-iocom 01 o -^Mioioo 01 com 01 m mioi 

I+++ +I + 1 + I++I I+++ I iT+ +TmTmTiii + 



EJUBpv 



* IT) M vo TTO VOC<lW01'd-0\'^01MM010M010COThOMCOMOMOlOCO 

+++++I I++ I+++I iT +ii+iT+iT°ii+i 



Sanqswij 



M ir)-«roi\Dv£> cor^ooooo mvo covo o vo 01 o 

T+++ I + 1 +++ 1 I ++ 1 +++ 



M M woo coovtxO'ors.oi ' 



+ 1 






l^w TfM coiomoo cot^t>.o 01 o lors.ro'H f*^oi iOm pi cocooivo m covo vo o \o r^ m m 
I + + + I + + + + + I + I + + + I I 1 + + + I+I I + I 1°1 I+I 



Bqopj03 



Jr^oi cot^oi Tj-iDM oq o or^ON-^oiooioinoi -^tj-onoi tJ-oo 01 01 »>. co -^ »^\o "^ 

'ooddcio^odMMpoMMdoddMdoiMoidcoMMOMOi;;' 



^OPOOQOOOO'-'OOmmoommoOOOmOOImmOCOmmomo 

+ I I T + T++ + + I + + I I ++ I ++I ++ I + 1 ++I I++1 I 



?i m\o t^oo ON o M 01 CO Tj- \n\o tN.00 a\ o "i cq co -^ \n\o ^^.oo 0\ o m r^ co ti- mvo t^oo n\ O 

Q,) rx 00 Ot O ^ 

>400 *^ ©t o\ 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 313 



IBnoqSB^ 



Bisscqqy J? 



■EuuajTY ? 



M'BSJ'Ej^ y 



pBaSii;3q-Bsiig[ 



/\oosoji^ ?^ 



jjsuBSni <> 



UBZ'EJ.J 2 



^BAjy JIZI>I N 



SjnquiJ34'EJi3; 



ziSjj ^ 





1 


;u3Jiqs-BX 


0°. 
+ 


^n'BUj'Eg 




T 


>ts;n5iJi 


T 


UTJI3J 


T 



iiJIsuTnoja^j; ^ 



uqE>i 



•T'T+TT 



W N d ' 



t^ <^ vo bv ts. -^ o\ O\\o o\ 00 



I l + l I++H-++T++I+TT 'I Ml 



1++1+++MI +T+++I + M ++!+++++ 1 i + TiTT 



. VD 10 t^ ■<t'0 00 00 ■* lO 10 -"too rOO\M-<tO\M\0 Tj-tOM 



CO OvUS vo 10 !>) o N ro ► 



TT 



?Trr?T 



1 T+++T 1+1+ 



• O\WO\iOC0w\O ■* O\00 10 O ro 10 O WVD 00 ts. -^ o 0\C0 M O w to Th CO O^VO M N 00 

'o»c^c^c^ddcow^<vJc^dc^dddHwcJcorqdc^cococ^iH»ofOc^W'-^fOpJ 

++++++++++ I 11 T+++ I +++++ I +++++ I + I 



MMd'<i-iOMM(oroMC^M(OM(OTi-co(^Modwd^HcidN'!froMM 

+ I ++ I I + I ++ I I I + I I + 1 + 1 I ++++ +++++ 1 + 1 + 



+1 +++++T++ I + I 1+++1+1 I TT+T++++++T+ I + 



• ^03 o OvforotocOM o N cooivo *Om o o cowvo roin lO'O o mvo ts. covo ^ 
'oM(^\diooip5ciT^T^c^HtovddMir)C^w«odoifOwMvd to^d t^ ^ w d i 

+ I ++ I ++ I ++ I +++T I ++++T++++++++++T ' 



o\ o\oo o o ^o ^^■(^^ ^s.^oo\^s.lo woo meow o\lop^ rofow o o roco-^mTh o\oo '^ 
MWMMOMoJotHd<;id<>)ootHcoN'^csorodModdc^ 

i 1+ I T++T I +1 T+T++++++++T+T+++ 



4VO t^^M ION »-> 100 o»i 



)ONrot%cO'^r^ 00000 0\N tJ-C( 0\m ooO 



• •HTj'NcOMOtHOiocorOv'OOOfOf^tMO'^QNi-'CionrocoiiiinrooootSM 

+ I ++++++T+ I ++++++ I + 1 M I I I +++++T+++ 1 



-tsiOM .voo^coooo covo ro\o P< « lo 10 Tj* Tj- ro\o to o ci w 
• dMoo •ro^^tHHt-i'^M'^'dddfO'^c^dcofOMMMd 

+ 11 ++I ++ 1+++1 T+1+T++1 I 1 + 



o\ o Ti* loco CO o\ o 01 lo moo oi co o oo t(* o\ looo w tN. rt* o oo 0\ 1000 ts. O w \o bv o o 

OCOCOmOOwC^m COOrOtHC^Ol mOmVOOJ O^-iCOW mi/^COtJ-O) tJ*OC^'>-i cooo 

I +++++++ I ++++ 



+ I ++T T++ I + I + I ++++++ 1 



) O 10 lOVO COCOTj-Tj-TfMOO 0\0\iriTj-0\'^ 0\V0 '^ 



CfliOlOOO»C*CO(NP1MT|-OM-CjOVOQtN.MMCO 

I +++++ I ++ I ++++++T++++ 



++ 



'^ tJ- tN. tN C^ 00 fO*0 VO CO w 

ocio»<Nvpcoo)oddMt>» 

I+++T+I l + M 



•oo\oooc»oioc^Mcoo I'^oo owo CO m 

•Tt-lH'*Ti-tOWMlO'*MM'NtOrOp>HO 

+ I++++ I + I ++++ 1 T 1+ 



• ovo^^M\OT^ot^^^N<o^^^^ -^oo " ■* o o\ ■<i- ■* t^vo toovOMoNMOowTj- 
I N pi M !s w n\o dc^coi>'*oJcoMOoifiiocorod»OMMNfJdstip'*diH 

+ I +++ 1 + 1 + I l + l +++ I I + 1 ++ 1 + 1 ++++T I + I 



• vo -^vo o i>» to ^% o 00 • ^^ ^r>^ o\ tJ- m m covo tJ-mooi •woMrj-inOTMots. 

•OTt-cJ-^NlOiHOlM lTJ*d*^QtHOlOCOiH\dc^lOlO •JHWtOoJrom'^TffO 

llllll+ll l+illlll+llll +1++IIMI 



• vo 00 CO O CO lOVO CO o 



•+Tr°TTTTT- 



• ts.cq 00000 ioco"^f^ lOM 
ioMNwdcpwoii-'dd 

++I l+l I I++T 



W TfTflOOxClVOVO ts.lOH 



■•*• in Tj- o M \o n invo TfTtM coc^vo com co ts.oo m m 



M wOC^HtOHllHOiOQ •OI^mMi-<\Ovnt-iC*iHC^ ■^iHCOfOOtO'-'iHioC^O 

++++ I 1 + 1 ++T +1 + 1 + 1 T+ I I +++++++ I + I I T 



O\00 O (^ O « 10 1000 CO CO "^ O CO 



M Q 10 cO\£) Mt>*OOQ(^C^C0Or| _- ______ 

I T I 1+1+++T I i+T ' ' l+l I++++ + 



vo cocoo '«d'ioo\"<to o\tN.o o rtcicoc^ covo CI 

0\Mir)doOOOpNCO mOO VO -^ m m N 

" ' f I++I 11+1+ 




+ 



vo \q t^ " N o> o (x\o ovo t^o o o\'*o o tviOM t^to'^oo Tf-^ooo Picot^ mvo o\ 
wo^i-fOWMt^ModwciTi-cid lovd ri'Ovcsc5pwHiPjc»MO^co^d\'4'4"^dN 

++ II + 1 + 1 I I I + 1 T+ 1 + 1 I ++ 1 I ++ 1 +++ 1 I I +++ 



O P « tsp POO M-N 

T+++T + T++ I +T T+++T + T 1 T++T++ I ++V++++++ 



tsi 0\ N w CO M ONVO 00 '^00 ■^MVO»OO^COP^ "^TfCOCOCOO co^ 

•HOOOdodoOMOMTJ-MdcOMOOMOMlHl" 



M co^^.com^%cococo^s.coc>^oovooo looo « m co co cooo o* on m vo o\ os covo rt* o vo co m 
»HC^^T^MQp^Ml-l(-^coooo^-lcocol-lloc^c^T^TJ•^oolo^MddM•►-•^o^Hdo vo 

1 + 1++T+++1 I T+T++1 + 1 + 1++1++1 + 1 I I I I+T+ a 



saaBuag 



jESBsqjg <^ 



«noo 00 o o t^ N moo o\ o <o 
'S-ioiofOTi-r^OMpqMNpi^o 



^oco^l"Ooml-l^o^l-' m^^^noo o P r^Nvooo 



I-iOiOCOtHviOmni-iNPi-iOI |NNp\>-ipri-04NMP'tNPPP»tOTj-poN " 

++I++I++I + I+++' M+T I T++i++i+++ri I T++ „- 

— ^ "^ 

t^wD Mvoc^N^NCo»^.c^lo^s■>J■'t^^o^^^^voNo^sO^N m^ tococoi-il*«iH00i-"N g 

l-ldppCOMNdpCOPjppMMtO"WCO<OwMPMppWMplH«r)NpplH« Jj 

++TT++++T I I IT I++++I++I I TT++T+I I TT++ ^ 



S \C^ ^»°0 0\ O " N CO ■* >OM3 tvOO 0\ O 



1 -^ lovo ts-oo a\ o HH 01 CO "^ m^ t-NOO o\ o 



21 



314 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



13U13JI JBBJO '«• 



O\C^C^OVO0O\MO^ClC0O\txi-iMC0 O\00 • • M iH CO 

>OMlj-COt<lci»j-^MMMMCO'*-*lOcJvc5 '• '• -^ d fi 

I ++ I I I I I ++++++++++ I + I 



msiuojuiaoia; '2 


. . . .ioc>ii-icocoioMiHCqt^nNcocoMto ^tvo c^o^o • • •^oovmco. . • - 


. . . .•*loC0O>-i>H0PO'T<"*0'-''^"^"0t^""M • ■ -NriMn . . . . 

1 1 I + I 1 + [ + I++I +++++++ 1 +111 




TfOOiO t-" OfOO\COlH^O^s.fO^Ot^^OO\lnl-lO^^-^0\0•-^0 


H. . CO 


I+I 1 ' 1 ' 1 ++I 1 1 + I++I+I 1 1+ 1 +1 + 


f+ 



sjajEjw M'^a 



sSuiJdg sojiv 



sj^ID So' 



I I +++++++ 1 11+ I I + 1 ++ 1 + 



■•00 c^c^c:^cofoo'o o co in.oo tj* t^. o on ^f n ro •^oo m ts^oo oo 



)co M -^O tM>. O 



+ I "*" I + 1+ I ++++++ I + 



t^ w o\0 MOO OvOO t^i-i\o " O\00 OO-^Nt^OOVO lOVO ■* M 



-<O'*i-i'*'*OOCO>-<O0iMcO01OO"1OM'*>-<>HQCOO • • ■ •" 
I++I+ I+I I++++++ +I++IIIII+ I 



uinbijiusQ 



t^OlMOt^OrJ-MOvMOCM-ioM-int^ri-ov^co >n00 O M «3 00 00 

dl^Of^M'd-COMfOCpi-t-^wo^d lOOO IOMOwC^WmVOOw 

+1111 



0>00'^"'Jl-fOH-COOi-'T)-i-'OM30 1000 lO M O 

++ t I I I I + 11 I ++ +++++I I 



jfOfOM o\0 O ■^n O CO w^o o\ ro ■^00 N ^^l-< ^roc^iot^io 



QjjjTiog; "^ 



•fO'^-^O'-'t^OMroO^OfOwmMi-.oOi-iM-rOMii^MOOOirt- 

+ i ++I I + 1 + 1 + i ++ I I + I I + I 1 I + I ++ 



UOSJBJ 










M !^^ MOO 
+ + +I 


m+i 


M CON 
i I+I 






::::::::++! 


1 + 1 


MM 


Euinj^ 


k 


. . ■ cot^ 

• • •++ 


10 M w COVO CO "* t^ N N 
1 + 1 + 1 + 1' + 1 + 


N CO M MOO 

1 1 ++I 


r°++r 


M 01 M w 
I + ! 1 


<jO COTj-t^ 

' + ' + 


BuaiSH 


"§• 




• l^MTfNMMOtxOC^Os^N 

•+I+I+I+I++I+1 


M N COM 

I + I T 


000000 CO 

1 I++ 


cooo >o 

I + I 






++++ 





s^i^l n^S 



VO cooo t^ O tx M l/>VO M irj coco mOOM^!StJ-momOMOmO\h'<J-moCOP1P10mo 
II +++I+I+I+I+1+II+I I 1111+11+ +1+ 1+ 



0SMI3 R 



1 M Tfo *-* ^ ^ incA nrOfocoM com coo >-• cocom ci nvo TfM is.fi lou") 

+ + ++ I + I I + M I I ++ I ++ I 11 + I +++ I + 



suuaXatjQ ^ 



00 10 invo OCOOTH^WmCS •PlCOMinMNOOllO'^CNIVOcONCOM'^rtOOO^O'^^ 

I1+++1 ++I + 1-I++I1I I I 1 1 1 + 1 I I++T++1 + 



JJOJEUISla S> 



txOO coco N O M N M 0) CO tHO O VO CO t^ T|-\0 COOiMmNtj-C^VO0)'1--*CO <0V0 CO ■* lo 

I I 1 ++ ++ 1 I +++T+ I I + 1 ++ 1 T + T++++ 1 + 1 ++++ 



aSpoQ ^ 



cooo cot^^sO cot^-d-M o -f^ 'iocoMoio\NTl-o«ooo)Moc<'*t^M-'*Mooc«vo 

1I+++ i+ii 1+1++T1++ I 1+ +I++T++I+ 



uo;>juB^ M 



T in 0\ -^ Oi"^ O Ht ■* -^ ^n\D MTtOMTf. . -irjii^M CO^O \0 co m O O\00 ts. C^ CO 

+++ 1 + I + 1 + 1 + iT + 1 • • ■ I +T++++++ 1 ++ 1 + 



iJOdsAajqg 50 



PI m M txOO CO Tj- tN O C^ cq COVO CO O C^ ■*VO PIMOmtj-mcsCI OMMIi-) Ti-VO 0\VO M CO 

+ I +++!!+ +11+1 II 11+ I+++I II++I++++ 



SSS0J3 bt; C5 



CO Tj-vD t^iocococoiococoo M o^o lo-^o M o\M 01 fo\o o -^ M ts»\o M n t^Ko Ti- M 00 

III+++I + 1M I 1 + 1 I i++i i+Ti I++1 + 1++1 + 



smoi -45 Si, 



coroco"-" lOw TfiOTfoo; ci cowro lo^o rt t-* o\ *-> r^ covo coo O «mwoo too^sOvo 

111++! I + I I ++ I + 1 I I +++ I ++ I ++++T++ + 



KfUBpv v3 



•VOCOcomO? MinC^M 00 MVO'«i-M\OO01NiOCqN OC^ NC^ mVO t-" 00 O O 

•++I+I+II+ 1111+ I+++1 1 +++ I ++ + 



Sjnqswjj 00 



CO CI COOO {vjOlO-^lOMOOOlOJC^COinC^lOMO COVO VOOVMVO COlOOMOOt^ ^VO Tl- M 

I II ++ I + 1 + 1 + 1 I + 1 I I ++ II +++ 1 +++++ 1 ++ I + 



iCuEqfy 



VO 0» cot^n O comcoMCO O "^^ Tj-MOCOC^COCOlJ^-^MC^T^Ot^MMW irjVO M- o o 

I I I + I ++ I + I M + I I 1 + I I ++ 1 I ++ 1 + 1++ + 



eqopjoQ 



fO\n-<t Tfo O t-" Tj- Tfoo o •^0\i-t ot^w 6 "^tN-c^ ut^m n rocom -rtOO M '<tCO VD N 00 
Moc^ddddowOMddooMOwdMMdNwodt-'wNMO'-'OootH 

1 +++ I TT++I+++ 1 + 1 + 1 +++ 1 +++++ I T+T++ I 



?J li^vo txoO ON O t-i c\] fO -^ "^\0 t^OO 0\ o "-■ W *^ ■* ^nVD t^OO 0\ O "-« C^ CO -^ invO tNOO OS o 

u ^s. 00 o» o ^ 

;>^oo o^ 0\ 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 315 



+ 



n 00 vr: t>v\0 O t^vO CO M VO Oi t>^ r/^ t^CO CO 10 M CO O t^ t^I 



■O I w I -<tf^lQOf^C0OMr0OC^wO0>-'C^'-tMMOOtHi-t I M -MOO 

+ ' I ' I I T++++ I I+++++++ I I I ++ I I + i+T 



•«i- Tj- Ti- ■^^,•ooo I 



} ^s. rooO 00 1000 C^ -^ "^ 1^ rt-OO 00 00 fO c 



01 vo tN.vo n ro 01 



B.ssBqqv » |++y+ I y I y j +^ I+ + + + + I yyy^ -f + + +IIIIII + I 



BUUST^ 



AVBSJBjW ° 



T°rr 



fOf 000 Tf-O roiorOt^^M M-MOOM CO 01 01 ^s.l-^\o oj '^ 
ro M o oi 



OOlOlOOlMOlMOl 



M M p n p o o 

I I T + T+l 



■^ o fO 
I-. oi d 

I 1 + 



•O'OOOVO O0000<^ O\00 M 00 rO 0( -^ ^s ^OO OX-^^sOlOO lOCOC^TtrOTj-CO M M 10 

+ 1 + 1 -i + K+i I 1 I +++++ I ++++ I ++++++T++ 



o\ Tf M o o •-' Tj- o\'o M ts. 01 o Tj- a> •■ 



J rO -^VO r^ TTMD O Tt- O 



pT3.l3ip3qES}|2 



.rooOt-tioPlrofO'-' 

+ +I I 11 + M 



TT? 



1 1++ 1 1+1 i+i T I- 



>-. CO 01 o o o 

1+1 11+ 



• 00 VO Tf Tt- ts. 0\ TtVO 01 00 tH 



rf o tx tN. CO Tf iri\o 



MOOSOJ^ 



•■ShOOlMMplOMOlMMO'^OO'^Tt-pOtH'-'OOTl-MMMWfOOOnM -MfO 

+++ I IT + 1 I + I I I I ++T+++++ I I ++++ I +++ 



1 + 



ijsuBSnq 



s'DIJ. 


+ 


• maoo w 


<yi owo 


t^t^ to 


lOfOMMCO'-iOO t^\o o^ 00 


inio-^^mN inp vivo •-■ 


00 


++++ 1 + 1 


0000 


1 +++++ I++T 


I++++ 1+1+1 I+T 


+ 


UBZBNJ 





.- ■* 10 N 


OWN 


OM^ 10 t^ w N noo 00 PO M VO 


«00 


MPTfC-lTTI-lMOCJVTfP 


N 


+ ++I 


I+++I+T 


1 II++I + I+ T 


rr 


t^roOMppiowfopfO 

++++TT++I T+ 


T 


;bajv 1!Z!>I 


00 

+ 








• Ov tx N N o\ txOO M ■* mvo 


. vo M vo ^s,oo tH 01 . . 


















++ +I+++TI 


r+ 


•OIOIOOTJ-OOOI . • 

■++1+1+1 1 








1 11 





S.inqiiua4'B>i%j 



zjSjj 



• OOv>OTMorotNt^"\0 MOO 0\ N 

++++ I +++ I ++++ I ++++++ 1 + 1'+++++++++ 



OMt^CJTMHMlOlO'l-txi-ifO-^NONK 
NNrO!^N'4f^O>0«NMcjvD 



0\ M rJ-M N ■*«> 



INOO P M "i-t^O 
.tocoxoPf^MfOMMMMPpproiripio 

++++ I +++ I + M TT++++ 



Tf -^"O W -^OO Ofl •'t OMO N \0 10\0 Tl- 01 CO CO 01 

^o^vMOl cooo w p^M copw 

■ ■ +++++T++ I T+ 



+ 1 



M oiocoo -^01 o coNVO "H t^scomcoco lo^o r^ CO CO 
6ooi>»t^wT^M^tN.i-<ooflp\oii-.incovowodoi^:^ 



+++++++ I +++ I +++ 1 +++ 



I 1000 ONMCVI ■>a-co^O\" Tf 



■ i>. com « -^ ^ 



juajjqs-Bx °^ 



.PMOP^pMiopropM 

++++T+ I + I + I 



tv.PVO I ' ' ' 



I 1 



jnBiiJBg 2 



• onoio^oooo\ invD txoo ^s t^ CO M \n o coco m looo "O \d ^s, oi co*o tj- o oi o^ 
. w rj-ri-oImoim-^iOMt-t TfcoM H-t M ■'j-tN.oi rooi oivd 01 ro^copo ^^"^ 01 p 

++++++++ I + I +++ I + I +++ I I 1 ++++T+ I ++T 



jjsinJiJi «> 



•cjorj-ONi-i+M'i- 

+++ I + I ++ I 



*-> COOO\01 CM^M O\CO0001 MirjO 0\\0 0\ O O In. 1 
o6m COpincoOMPOV^Chodt-iw pco-^0) o -^ 



+ I I 1 1 ++ 



1+ ++[ I 1 + 



conOOOOO t^cO'S-N 



) 10 M tx t^VO 



■ t^ o\ 00 c^ • 



«!^3d: 



T+I++I I I 1 + 



5 l^ H-t 00 M Tt M t^ Tl-VO O t^ t^ 0\ O t^ ir)VD ro O C^ -^ M w 



ii>jsuiq3ja^ « 



,_.. _ . ^ppfqOMfOt^pufOOnVOMUMMNpNppu-) 

+ [++!++! I l+TTl I I + I++I I I 1+++++I+TTI 



IIBUISJ BjaQ 00 



cooo \o -^ThM coiot^cocj M o^co 
"^od'j-iHC^icopdcqco 'i-'O 1 
+ 1 I + I + I + I ++ I + + 



yD o oow cotxoo-^ioo 0\ M-oo ^s. covo tN* \n co\o 
i-^o cocow o oivdoi-^M '^ u-jvo 00 \d 10 d 6 01 



+ 1 



I I 1++++ 



I I 



+ 



ooot^H.tvco'^coTr cooo Tj-vo vo^o cont-mtxn 'e-co cooo moo m 1^00 o o\ o< cooo m n 
o'cocoNMcSmfoopi-ImfomMM o\od -i- ■* P d c< 6 covd >-< co cove 06 N. t>. " " P 



+ 1 l + l + l + l 1 + 1 + + + I I + I I ++ I I + + + + 



I I+ + 



itjBipa 8 



CO »iivo bs. cooo mTj-Tj-o M Nvo co^t-'toi w cooo t>.rocooi>o O\o o cooc o\ *-< oi t% m in^ 

dddoidddwdddH.'ddpdw»-''iopd'-«oiodwpoii-Ipdddd'-^d 

++1+++ I + I MI+Tll + ll I +++++[++ I 1 ++ I + + 



+ 



comcofowc^ w o oi tN.M eoO\0\iocooi ooo oocoo lots^o^ u^oo -^ tj- o vo *o O\oo >-> co 
codoJoid'^oo'^ddiHMMdMdiocqoiooicoMOoicooicoooicscooioiMo 

++ 1 +++ 1 +++ 1 I ++++ 1 + T I I ++ 1 ++ 1 1 + 1 I I I I ++ 



\0 P M p P ' 



) cooo 00 t^ O « 



JOIOO C^t-" ?M 000 MVO^ O t^ 



+ 



rOON010^COOOTf01COwO>-'CO| Its. rt-\0 OlOlcOt-ipf/jOl Ol-^O'-'t^ "^VD 01 M O 

+ I +++ I + I ++ I ++ ' ' I + I I I + I T++ I ++ i I I I 1 ++ 



jBSBsqig <» 

+ 



Tj-TTtsTj-p TiTor^OiP m -^oo Omi -"j- mvo m m m co m t^oo coNt^Miococ^vo 



rpcoopM>-<i-ii-iP"pc< 
+++T+ I +++ I T+ 



rr+T 



MO««OO'-''-'OO»-'C0CO000imi 

I++++ I +++I I I I ++ 



cil irj<o t-voo o o " cq CO ■* mvo tvoo o\ < 

lU t^ CO ( 



c^ CO ^ m\o t^oo o\ P •-' c^ CO '^ mvo t^oo Pv P 



3i6 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 



latipa JEEJO "j- 



ui3}uojui90ig %;. 



^-tOA * 



s-iai^AV ^I^a %• 



sSuijdg 33HV %• 



tH o o\ m 0\ 'T TfvO 00 0\ -^ N t^CO c^l t^ m t-^ . m lO t^oo 



T I++I I I I + I+++I++++ +TT I T 



i^cnomo) t-ivoNiOf-i ■«:*• \ri\o (n oo n tx moo m ti-oo 

I I I 1++I l + l I + I+++I I+++I 



1 + 



Ifoo'-<>-<fo^^^Ol-t^-<(>^ .o "Po 

++ I I ++ I +++ I + 



+1+' I ' I++++T I 



+I++I I++I+I+1 I+I++I+ 



• inOO T^00 lO TtOO ''^WM'^-MtHO^OvOP) POmO'^Om -^vo 
^fOtooOMMMTj-intHtotNiMioc^'-'t^eort-Pod^JOfO'^iH 

+++++I I 1++I I I+I+++I+ I IN 



s-i'^D °d, 



+ I ++[+ 1 + 1 + 1 I I + I++I + 1 I + I+ + 



M-VO O tN.\0 i-t P) Tl- 0\V0 ts. tx Tl- O -^VO Tfir)fOO\^^iOO\roC^vo w o 



• "' a jv [ +1 l + l 1 1 i + i+++++n 11 + 1 + 1 + 1 1 + 



ajjjnog "j^- 



• •*c»5OM>.t^P1000000 ■*0\'*TfT)- rooo ^ 0> rf t^oO t^ O^00 O O lO 

• «MNd"dNNddioMd\d'^""N''^'*d'i''^MMC<jM 

I++TI+I I+++++TI l+l I+T+++I++ 



UOSJBJ ^g 



•00'O!MO"'*NNt>. MO iH »n « CO Tl- M >-i 

: + + + +I++ I+++ I M I l + l II I I 



Ewn^ ^ 



: : : I + I + I II II +++++ ++ I +++ I I + I + I I ++++ 



BuapH S 



'^coiOTfcQW M o)\ot>.cO'* m\o omM-o c^mcoo cop* -^otofo moo N 

l+l 11++I++++I I +1 +1+ 11+ +1+1+ 



35IB1 ;[BS vS 



osBj 13 . g; 



9UU3it3q3 •* 



ijojuuisie: ^ 



MHCqiiroTi-Tj-^i/ 
1 + 1 1 + 1 + 1 1 


5 CO N N O t^vO " 
l+l +++ 


O^lONCOTt-OONCl 

11 l+l ++1 


O O " " N ►-■ 
I++1 


+ 1 + 


■ VOMmmcomOmcow 

: : : : : :+++ | ++ ++ I 


11+ ++I 1 1 


1+1+1 1 


°rrT 


\0 N •*COCOM ^O V 
I+1++++ 1 


5VO« • « t^COO 

1 1 :++ + 


rq -d-iocotno 
+ 1 I+ + 


COCOMTt-NMNMt^O 
1++I l+l+l 


r+T+ 


o Tj- "^ CO in to\o m M o o ^ « Pi 0\0 'd-oo oo oi w (^ 

T 1 i++i 1 1 1 1 ++++++ 1 11+1 


1 1 I++ +1 +1+1+ 



83pOQ 



0\ PO'O MtOW'HNPIiOOM'OTl-i-iPli-cTfOTj- rovO P^Oi-^tOPOP^OPlTfPIMpOWfO 

1+1++++111 1++1+1 +++ I +11+ 11+T 1+ 



UOl^IUB^ O 



t^NCONrJ-NflNiHt^iHOTftOTl-Tf .irno ■ • •tOP10"*NiHN^CONOCOl^«0 

I 1 1 +++T 111+ ++++ -11 • • • I + ++++ 1 I +T+I + 



}J0d3Aajqs r^ 



oo■^^o^t-^ococ^cqc^om^^p^c^^-lcoMl-.^-lC^^-^^oco'-^TfM^^T^coo^^c^coc^ 
1 + 1+ ++1+ + + + + 11++I + 1 II I l + l I 1 l + l I 



SSSOJQ Bq <» 



iOTi-C( -^i-N comci M co»ncOM me^ fi o mt^Mvo ■<S-cq Pi m T^co'-^ m\o cocoo w o\o 

I 1 I++1 I 1 1 I 1++1++ I 1+++I 1+++I I I I+T + T+ 



sino-i -IS ig 



inHtpjroMpivoP^cocoOMTf-m'HO'HmiHOfOOtNfOOi-troPli-iootHco'-'iHPitH 

I+I+I+I++I ++++ +11 ++1 I +II+II+T111 



BiuEiiv R 



• • -ClNrS'<^MCO>-iOCOTfCOi-icO»-t**t*1^HVOi-*mNCOt^Cl co\o O t1- t^ CO »-< M 

:::| + 1++|+ +++++ 1 ++ I + I 1 1 + I I 1 1 + 1 ++ I 



SjnqsMid: N 



1 I++1 + I 111+ I++I I I++1 1+ I 1 I I I T 1 + 



iCueqiv 



0\ in M covo (ocqMC»cqMmcoco^c^ciiHcoMOmNNNC^M*^C(^OMmHii-rm 

1 1 1 + 1 + 1 I 11 ++ 1 I +++ 11+ ++ 1 +++++ 1 T+ 1 1 i + 






c^ »H 00 t-t -^ CO •-< inyo m o o hi o\m3 -^i-t m comt^coO o c?»N mO\o t^w co*-* moo o 
ddddddddo9"dd"i-'<Ndpdd""NMi-i«ocqMi-i')c<odod 

+++T I l+l 111 ++11111 I+++1++T+I+T++T+ 



^ rt irt\Q t^OO 0\ d t-i 01 CO -^ mxO t'sOO O^ O t-t Ci CO -^ mvO t^CO 0» O M C< CO TJ- mvo t^OO 0\ o 

O U t^ 00 & O 11- 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 317 



+ 



+ 



■Bunsi^ °; 



AlBSJ-B^VV 4! 



pEj3q;aqBSii3 ^ 



AlODSOJ^ 



JlsueSni 



> O 0\ f^ O f ^ 1 



1 OM^ M N 00 OvVO O. N " 



Tt- t^vo 000 



+'++11+111+ I+I+T+T+ I+I+++1 '+ I I++ 



I ++++++ T 1+T 1 ++++++ I ITMIII+ TlTTllll 



-mM*ovo.t-'t^Mwcomroo»c^owi-iiocQMroo\ompofOf^omN'*-^OMMfO| 

I T I I I III I I I I++ l + l + l l+T 



. VO 00 tJ-\0 tN m 0\\0 O Tt-Tl-txtN.O\iOOvO *00 moo 'r)-MMroi^a\'-*NClOWO\tN. 

• N»HMowoiMM<s'Nci6Qd«oddwrowdMdMQdMddMfOMd 

+I+T+I+I I+++T++T I++T+++T+I++I+I TT 



^lAo • • •Md«^MMdM(^*dofldMwooroc*MpJddMr^pdH*Md'^<^ 

++ i+i l++l+++r+l+T 1+ l+T+l+T +1T1+ 



• t-ioo intNM tN.rocoo o rofO ro^o rN.o\N tH o row n\o n mmo moo oo m r^ o >-« i/i 
•rowMOwMddrOMNwc^'o-^Md(onM(spjMwpMrqinddTt-dd»-*^ 

+ I ++ I I + 1 I I ++++++ I I + I I + I + 1 + 1 +++++ I + 

•o<»5oOTfNTi-io'<tMM\on-txNN -"too oot^OMNMiHNioitoo>ni-im>n»».o> 

++++I+TT I+TT++++T l+T I+I+T+T+T++TTT+ 



S}IJ!X 



- c^ m mvo VO 01 o\ '^ ^H rj- tsi rQ\o coo? m roc^comrobsCOC^M ooiMOroo\ ^s00 »o w 
■ c^NdrodMddodMpHdMdw^w9(sd*:«(^'dt^dc^pJddddpw 

++++T + TT + T I T++++I I I T I + 1+++++1++TT I I 



UEZ'BJ[ 



■ N 00 00 tv. o\ M o\ t^vO " ininoiinN oq roioNoo movDvoooo mt^>- tk^vooo mOv 
► ciMdtHcocqt^owNod*do)WHitHMMNcod(N'HHtri-pjTJ-cjM'^MOdH 

+ I ++ I + I + I I ++++++ Mill l + l + l + l ++ + T I + 



tN " 00 • t~\o o o\ «^ rteo Tffn tn oivo vo m ov o m\o to •* 



^■BAjy Jizrsi 



• wpp .NOttl-ipOptHi-ipMCOOripotHOOi-iO • • 

+ TT ++++T + T+ I T I I ++T+ 1 + I ++ 



3jTiquiJ3;-BJi3; V 



NO(>^o^o■<i-o^NM* -^^o o ^o pvovo «vooo moo t% o 00 o\vo * p ■* o P ^> m 

Tcqd«coforirocoodo»nc*ipt-ttHMWoJo»dpMP»eOMCOMdfOoJriciN 
I++I+IIII++++ 11+11 l+l+l+l ++ + +++ 



ziSai ^ 



+ + + + 



Ttvo fovo 0000 locfl ovfooi t^intN-p o 

CO 10 M 



I T I++++I 1+1 1+ 



N ro t^ fOOO 0\ CO COOO 



+ 



I +T+ I +T+++ 



•00 O VO M o\\riO\ ts>o N ts. m (N^vo 00 N CO 

•0>-ltHr(|-IMMOMOMI-ll-lpC^*(Hd 

++I+I I l+l+l I ITI+T 



o\ i •Mtv.Moxci'^pOMniJO-^ rxvo vo t^fooioooo o\w fo\o oo o co o^ ^ooo m o* o M 
Tn-ETiJEcr o ' -wMc^dto-^MMcodoJr^wwdpQMi^wdwwwMMcop 

^ ^ + I I ++ I + I I I I I +++ \ \ l + l + l + l + l+Tl I I +++ 



o\oo M t>^ m M o\ Tj- w 
dpdioOMdroro 






■*N00O\O\MUT* 



^s;n>tii ^ +^1111 + 11 1 + 11111 + 1^111 + 



CO ro W p M 

I i+T I 



"H^d 



• N 0\ -^OO t^. ■* t^ M- tN • « 

+++I T I+I I + 



1 t^vo t^ ■* t^ fO ► 



O 10 • N fO 



>-< M o o o o > 

I I ++++ 



M P ( 

I T- 



TflT 



vo I iH t^ m TT ts. M ovoo rfoo oooovo m o\«o\o Ti-OMxi-1 lOHno mNooiot^'^ n\o o 
nssuiuojs ST 9 I M^f)««MMm>HMd«todf5dMd«co«wdNM"M"M■wMd^o^od 
••^ -^ ^ T , I +++ I ++++ ll + T 1 T I T I +++++++++ I ++ I ++ 






lOtHVOON(*lPfOt-tO\ONC^t^tO 



c^ M* o ^N w 00 Q\ t^oo o i-t M « o\ i/^\o fo ^N (^ Tf 

h.(^iHO'-'OCOOHiVOtHC^l/^OClN'<tt-tcilO 



+ 1 I I ++ I i + I I + + + I + + + + + ll + ll + l + llllll 



^_ VO tx rN*\o wvofow C4 mcowm -^OHroc^ co\o M Ti-00 to N w ^^oo m Tj- tN. M 00 ri-\o o\ m 

SJOTJ'BT ^ j ot-HOOfomtNiHiHNi-itoMcowi-tproopOiHdcoxnMfopid^ocoNvdocofO 

+ + 1 I I ++ 1 I + 1 I I ++++ I + I I l + l + l I l + l + l I I + I I 



xjBipa g" 



oNdpMMWMiHdddiHddMpvdwNcoNdd^dwiHMdd'i"'^"'^^ 

++ 1 ++++++T++ 1 T+ 11 + II I +++ 1 +++++T+ I + I 



t^MOO N lOOOOOO rOTj-t^iH Tl-t^N moo ■* ■* o o t^ o ^f •^oo O M o o 



^ ! , ++I I+++++T I +T++I i T I 






ssj-Buaa g 



ts vo t-i ro -^ fo N 



1 vo p 0\ M (o 



O inOO covo OOvOmOO-tj-OmFO ts^VO N tH i-t 0\V0 



tOOiOMiOWiHiHMi-tPOpCl I I i-'COpp'^rOMfOtHppi-ipiHVOpts.cOTtP 

++II++++++ +T+I I l+TT I+++ I I +1 + 111 + 1 + 



+ 



in m N N p 00 fo O\00 eo moo ^sM ovp cots^p ovci m corf O\oo fOtNMMt%MVOvONro g 
«doroindpid'-'d»-"MC^i-4pNpojMopMoJdpiHwrop*o(0'^t-*o)t-*M *i 

I +++++ I +++ 1 ++ I ++T+ 1 ++ I ++T ili + iiii + ii <S, 



; m\o ^N.oo C\ c 



(s CO Tf mso tNco 0\ o 



) rt \n\0 t^OO On O »-< PI CO ■^t m\0 bvOO 0\ O 



^ i>H02 



3i8 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



?9«Pa i'Bv^O '^ 



ai3)no;iu90[g[ Y; 



I l + l 1 + 1 l + l I I 1 T+++I +I+T 



N tsOO w 1-1 00 CO M 10 «OVO 00 00 r^vo o\ t^ O 0^ Cfi O N 
'csoioiHPid'^c^ciiHvdfoe 



•00 I- T)-^ 



I I I + I++I + I l + l T++T+++I I TT++ 



31J0A V 



+T I+' T ' I T I ++ T I+I+++T I+++I++ T + 



■^vo 00 Tfvo ^soo o c^ coiOMOo •-< mTt-ts. iri\o n o 



sj3;bAV ^I^a 00' 



++ I ++ 1 +++ l+l+l l+l+l 1+ 



t^ o 'foo to M o\o to o «voo Tfi-itot<toMotor^to txoo 



sauudg '3!IV "to 



• vovot^jHii-iOvPi I otOl-ltoot^Ti•T^oo*'>•-l»'^Ol-tvofow • • . .to 

++I + I++' T ll + l + l I I I I M++I 1+ + 



ajBio •„• 



O VO -sl-vo t>v00 00 ^r> 10^ 10 TJ-OO tvVO 10 T^ M so 00 tOVO m m \o oo 

dtoMNoWotodviH'^QooiHOto^otoTj-xj-tifi 



JtOMMOMOtOOi-iiH-^QOOi-iOtO^OtOTJ-xJ-NMi-i . . . .Ol 

++ 11+11+ I++T 1+ I l+l I1++I++ + 



umb]iTU3Q V 



00 CO r^ to o o *n\o 00 ixiowoo t^toc^i-i c^ inoo w to ci ci m m- vooo 



r)i-iMM\O-*i-iMi-iOM-*t)0)t)TfcOONpOMcoiHONCOco 

1 1 1 1 I I I I 1 l+++++++++T[ l + l I I++ 



< 

I 

(A 

< 

« 
o 
^: 

o 

t/3 

w 

H 

< 
a* 
w 

Q 

w 
w 



sijiiioa V; 



o ^ li^oo \o -^o o oivo rJ-M^M iioo '^'d-PflOO PI u^^o to 0) m m in 
coO"'*iHddiHMCoiodMc5McodcJtq<^dNPicoi-i'j->o 

iT+i+T +1 ++T+++1 ++I+ I +1+ I++ 



nOSJEQ 



• WtomiHtoMNiHirirscot^tlOtOM co\0 

: + + +l + |++| + | 1+ 1++I I I II I 



Buin;^ S 



. ■ •MMHlOIOMC^ri'^l-IIHIHM'^Ol-lOt^MrOCOtOMCOt^iHOts'^-^rOl-lUl 

:::++++ II++II++I I +1+1 l+l II 11111+ 



easpjj 



Tt<vicococioiocic^iHi-f ■^>o M tooooo^mixco-^i-i tow ^inTt-mtom 
1 + 1 1+ ++1+ + +I 1+ l+l I++I I 1 II I I 1 + 



'51^7 ?I^S vS* 



<>)i-iiHi-ii-i'<ifr4iHiH>HC<)va'<3-iHi-i'4-M'^tocooc^t^<nmcomi-i^>i'<j-Mtot^int^ 
+ 1 1 1 + 1 + 1 I I I + + + + + + 11+ 1+11 + + + I I I I I I I + 



o"d 13 <& 



:+++++++ I I ++ I I I + 1 ++ I 1 .1 + I I I IT M I 



ann3X3q;3 



■^OwtOMO-^lOtOi-ico •m'*tOi-iO00TfC^tHO>*-txiH'*«i-''<J- to>p O 09 ^ 10 to 

+ I + M +++ 111 1 I I I 



1+++I 1+1 :+l 1+ 



^JDJBUISta >^ 



1-1 M M ts, CO itvo ^^ oo^oovotocooPtcoootq^fomMoot^ot^ >n\o 0\ to « « 

+ +1 M++I I ++1 1 1 T I ++I I+++ I I I I I I I 



sapoQ "g. 



i-ii-iMP)iOJ^t^OO!>ltoiotNtoNOi-i tooo NMWiootO>nOON'*i-iP)'-'VpP)0»0 

++I 1++1 1 1 1 1++I +II1+++ 1+ +1 I I+T+ I 



uo;3itiB_^ g. 



to n co^ 1000 tx moo MOVorxOvPiN -mc^ • • •NNOvocoimiciTj-i-iixiiO* 

++ 1 I +++ 11+ ++ 1 + 1 • T I • • "•+ 1 +++++ 1 + 1 I I 



jjo<l3A3jqs S 



t^lHl-lOl-lt4coocol-l0^^lOl-tP10to^4l-lOtOT^oMTl*Ol-lt4mlHMMVpMtoto 

+ 11 +++ +1 ++1 I Ml 1+ ++ I + II++TI.II 



SSSOJ^ •B'X vg> 



O O tOmC^VOOOVOOO IH t< tooo ONV0iHOvC^MC^\Oi-iM0>nt0tlC^t-t^M0\Ow«0 

+ 1 +++ 1 I I I ++T I I + 1 I +++ 1 + +++++ III II 



emoTis K. 



toio>HOtoO\OP)f)totq tvOO t«NtONiHM^>oiHiH lovo t^ tj- o vo to mvo to ■* M M 

I ++ +++ I +++++++++ I ++++++++++++++ I +++ 



v\vceny °^ 



ooi-i"*tio^i-itoi-«ooi-ii-icoo tovo i-imioi-to»ntoiHiHC^toototo 

+11 ll+l Ml 1+ 1+++ +11+11 II 



SjnqsHTj to 



t« M t( to to ovvo >not)Otqvot<M<vt^totoiHiHNO>oiHwtoo)P«toi-iO'"tN"Htors 
+ +1 I+ + +I + ++1I II t I I++I I++I+ + + I I I I I 



XuBqiv -o 



<« rKO ■* t) \o -^vo PlP<iHiHt^NM-NiHioiHOtovoiHCOi-ii-iiMP)uTl-OOIxi-i«iH 

I I I 1+++1 II ll + l + l 1 M ++I I++1 I++ l + l I 



o 

Bqopjo3 00 



to Tt-^O l^ -^ Id- C^ 00 -^CO mino lr)C0^NC0l-l\O -^oo o\ O m oo o\vo ^ »r)\o vo •*J-oo tl -^00 

wMMddddddi-<Mdddp9P'r9"0""'"'^o'^''^°°'?'^v9'7'9 

++I 11++++ 11+ T [ TT I T+++++++++++I + MM 



c« \n\o ^soo o* o « w co -^ ^^ t^oo o\ o « c^ fo ^ io\o t^oo o\ o m w co ** »ovo ts.00 0\ o 

*W ^^l 00 O^ Q Si 



NO. 



4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 319 



;Bno-q3BT[ '^ 



■Bisssqqv ",) 



BuuajA °n 



. o com^t^^'-'^ *^ o\^o o o \o ^ 



Tfoo m Tj" so M vo «*) ^ 



I+TTIT + T++ +++ I +++ I 1 I 1 + ' +++ I + 



CO Tj-00 00 Tro\N NVD ro« t^t^vo MOO coN^ooq "vo t^".«2 "<» "t^. t^*:-^";"? ■> ' 



+T+I + T I I i + i TT+++I I T 



o o o »-« o ^» o 



TTTTTTT++ 



MBSJB.W 'n 



pBjsmaq^sna °^ 






'f'ffr 






+ I ++++++ 



;mwddMdddd"dddTi-toN"d"NdNN99N!;i>-<«H.to«oN • 

TTTTT+-nT 1+T+++++T+++1++1 T+1 + 1++++1 



JTJ-NVO O O " t^lOMOOOO ONCOlOOM^Tj-COt^t^M tv-fJOO MCO Tj-VO to M 1^ 0\ (7> 



fr 



rMMMpONO"OMi-'i 



+++++ I + I ++++[+ 



CO 

< 
o 

:^ 
o 
&i 

CO 

w 

P 
H 

C^ 
<1 

W 
Q 

W 

e^ 
P 
H 
< 

w 

H 



MODSOJ^ "„• 



• o ■* >o M « o 00 moo o^MNtt-t^.t^Tt-qmO'^ro 
:J.OMJMi-;MfO"'-<d-^d-*wro«d«"d\d-!i-o>Hooi-'" -^ws 9 "r <^ ^^ 

f^r+++4i;? 1+^+1++++ ++ I+++ I+++H-+T 



W fO\0 \0 \0 O in t^OO ro PI 

+ 



jjsuBSnq V) 



) -^ pom o •"• 



• ddMt^d"Ncod"'^r^dNN!^'"dwvo"""'r*;:'':'':^T V^ ')' ? V V 
'i'^4l4!|+^l+f ++++++++ 1 + I ++++++++ I +++T + + 



siB'X 



ON o o to o vo in «oo OMO«oot^t^t^ o\oo ■* o tnvq iv omo t>. q q> p; q\oq Ov q 

Md"r;dddMv"°"9°'r?V'??V?V?i???^7T5.£?X° 
+ 1+ +, I + 1 +++ 1 +111 + 1 I + I + 1M + M++I + 



UBZ'BNI <>„• 



;-BAJV liZ'S °r^ 



tooo cotxtoOM^'^MOo to t^oo ro o iH •-. lo « Ov cpoo t~. q\ q q q 00 M ovoo « lo in N 
Ndd!^M""*Ndd«"P0"<^fod-4-d"t/^-*d"wwdq rovo n cj o m 
'j'^f^4! + + + |+ + + + +|++t^+ I + + + + + + + + I ++ I I 1 + 



Nt^O ■vOtxCONON" «00 MM^ >OP0T)-^t>.tO'<r« t>.N 

1++ +T+1 T++ I I++++++++I+T I 



3jnqiiu9iB3i3 °^ 



to o " o\oo t^ M M to o N N Choo mvo 00 to lovq q» 
:H;MdMNNM«o'"NMN"4"W"N>^«-*"ON"0'r'N'-<M<!< 



z]S-ix 



I I ++++++T+ I +++ I ++ 1 + I +++++++ I +++ 



t-N t^ N ^ >n o covo to "I to o\ 

fff+ 



++T 1+11+1++ 



iUSJjqsBx °" 



Tj-iorotxtoiHoooo q o o» 

T"rodfododd"ON 
++++T i + i+ii 



• o f^oo •-" i-" N w '^j-t^mcofow -^00 o in 

'odQwdw'-^0'-^>;;^dN6wO COM 

+11 [ 1 + 1 I++1 + 1 + I T I 1 



inBuj^a; °d 



CO invo o>-<oorotoi-ivoo^oo ri-oo m^q |-;qiq".°o<OMqN';i^ 

+ N'^Mdd'*o>-<"to 
1++++T+ 1++ 



:d"PO«"d"P^pid""oPOM<o9<o>H«qpo 
+++1 +++ 1+1 1 1+1 11+ 1+++ 



3js;n>iai "6. 



. \o t<^ i-iO"Ot^-* .Tt-pjcotoPiNoNot^qa-a- 
:ddNp^d"d«-:9dM9ddd'HddMPJn6oopov09v9 

+ + + ++ 1 1 + I 1 1 T+ 1 + I 



■^ to CI W M ro 0\ l>»00 

+++ I l+T I++ 



UI>P<I °dv 



■ p5 

+ 



> H M t^ PI M O 



PI M 9 9 M o W I 
+ 1 11+ + + 



> lovo ^^toP^PO^n0^o^^'0•^^Pl^ .p)0\ 



I +++ I + 



++ 



OvO\0 OSD^O O ■*« -^-^(^ f^OO 



moo N (0'«JTOO\'*N O fOtN.O»t-* OOO Tt- 



«*^ JJJJwdQNMddcoMdd'H'-<dopiooooow<^c<owo<*3N9 • 

TiJlsuiqowN «J 1 +f++f^°+ + + + + +n+ + + + + +T+l+++l++l+ + + 






fOfoo^M-^MOOP^ t^oo i-ioo q t^tN.t^q\q »^ 

fOiOOPOlOPI'-fO^PlrOCO-^OMMMO'-iO 

I+I++++1+I I+I ++I 1 1+ 



©aoq-eq g" 



O\oo to Tt o\ r^ t>i ■<t\o \o lo M 00 tx 
xiidi>.t>-dNOt-^i-iooo^f^ 

+ 1 I I ++++ 1 + T 1 ++ 

N I-. M 00 1- M ovoo to w lo 0\ to t^oo .oPi\qM>ot-.q\q>CTv q\^ <? =? <^ ^"^ *^ •> "^ ^ 'I 
4dvoti4toddd"POMiowp;d4p5coNt;)Pod""Oti"Pii-'M-*'-'"ON 

++I I ++++ I +T I ++ 1 + I + 1 ++++ 1 ++ I + I +++ I +++ 



w^ipa 3 



« « P) t^t^o o OM3\ott^M o t^o tvvo OOO o t^tooo to^cooqoo q q q>'7t>oo ovto 
di-:dH;Np5p;dpJddv<^<opi9dvf5i^90707"VVT T£j[?jL.iTi 

++++ I +++++T I 1 I +T++ I I T+++ 1 + I + I 1 ++++ 1 + 



MOPit^PiooooOMO ^vo coMOPJtnqvqqvpO^Hiqi rt-oo p< f vq ■<J-qt>.Tl--<j-t>.r^.to 



jnd3BN g> 



GSj'eudg o" 



jBScsqis ^ 



I M M M M O " PI 
+ 1 ++ I + 1 ++ + + 



PI o 9 

++T 



■*9ihP)«OV9 «> 

+ 1 + 1 ++ I + I T 8> 



^iovoo\p)>o<oo«50\P)tooPi cototncoi-.OM«3 0v^ootoooPO<oioqqq«n 

uf pf f f^^f f t^i ' fimmTT+++TT+i+++ 



►.CO ■*t-.o Pioo POP! too p; lotoo lo-fPi q M-p~.q ^^,^, ", o^ ^T?"^ 
pidwd«tO"«odpipito-'<o«pJp)<OMP<d<^9qq 

+ 1 I + + + + +[ I 1 ++1 I + 1 1 + 1+ M+ + 



vo\o »o g 

I T 1 1 1 1+ il 



J 10\0 t^OO Cn O I-* (^ to ■^ LT/O t^ CO o\ o 



t Tj- in*o tN,oo o o 



ro ■^ in^O t^OO 0\ O 



z !>-' 



320 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 



Jt^l/JMN Tft^Tj-loOv O\00 VO ^ O ro 0\ U100 00 



jainay JBEJ9 o^^^ 



UI3}U0JUI30ia %• 



+1+1 +++ I r+ I +++T+++ ' I +T I 



• vD o\ m to -^00 Tt*o o ^sln^^.lnc^ m n ^s.\o w t>. co lo 

I I I r++i +++++++++++++ 1 






t^ t>.ir)t^minavtHait^foeocoi-tO\o»cocoo\Mtx 



^JOA «■ 



SJ3}E^ iCj'Ba °4 



sSuTjdg aojiv V 



9aBi3 °^- 



umbijinaQ 



Ml' l+T i+T l++++T+i I I++++ I + 



NcoT^d!jiNp<od<P'opN«NdMiooJ 



+ + + I ++ I + I++ I + I + I I 



• fO Woo C0O\tJ-O*^ih m on ■^OO*'^ ■^00 \000\Ti-m»HiOM . . - -o 

+ I I++I I T+++I + I + I+++I + I+T I T + 



O 0\ «0O TJ-^O cOTi-1-1 M«3 OliH 1- 000 N tvfxO MOOOO t^OO t^ 

oc^MfOMOllHo^o^p^^pd^^^o^H»7'+t:^wdMOl* 



.COwNlHClWpMpONtOMM-^HMPMOl 

++I+ I+T+T+I++I+I 111+ 



tx In. tN. o\ i^\o li^ M -'d- ^^, M ^^. rvoo -^cowoo moj mtj-oxm n ooom 
ow roiocit^ro-^d-4t^'^'«^rocofo<^ d ^ c^ w^tod ddw d 

+ I I I I I I I ++ I +++++++ I ++ I +++ I + 



o 

o 

l^ 
in 

w 
;=) 

<: 
w 

Q 

< 

Pi 
w 

w 



331-inoa; °u^ 



CO • M invp o\moo loinM *oo\ci cot^M iov^m o\nvo m Ti•loo^TJ■ 
p •PNMHNp"inpPtOMiN.aPNd->i-dwfJ'*Mdp>:<ro 

+ M +++T++T+ l+r+l+l++ I++ I +!+ 



UOSJ'EQ *g. 



Buin_x. o 



l + l I I I++I+ + +1+ + +I I I I I I 



• •tHrOO)C^Mir)POTfMMMMMCOlHTflOlH10rOOMOWlHO'-»t^ N»OOmC< 

• '■++++ 1 + 1 r++ 1 + 1 1 1 + 1 ++ 1 I I + + 1 M ++ 



BuapH R 



:++ ++I + M+ :| I I l + l I l + l 1++I I I I 1 + 



3>IB1 JIBS 



N 1-1 1-1 ► 
+ 1 1 


■<MplOP«"foMcONT)-P)\nwiH'^rOTf«P\>-.OOMtO""" -^OO t^ CO M- 

1 + ++I++++IT I+II+I+I+I++I+I 1 I++ 



osBdia S; 



•tN.Tl-0\tN,ir>lOM too O N W rOO fOMM '^PQfOO "^VO C) W C»( o» o O M 

:++++++++ I ++ l+l 11+ +11 l+l I 



3UU3iC3IJ3 



jjoj^msig; JQ 



Tf M !>) <o 10 cooo "McoNPTfNcofqiococopt^MCopi-imMp »^^o p co ■* ■* m co 

++II+++II+I ++I+II+ l+l l+l II I M 1+ 



11+ I + ++ I ++ I++I I ++ l+l l+l l+l I i I ++ 



33pOQ 



•<^i-<cocoinTft~.>-'Mconi-iMMTt-covo^Mcom>-ii-ip(^vp cooo ■* pj n m f) p m 
+ 1 1 I + + + +I I I I++I + I ++I++I ++I1I + III I 



uo;>itiB_x. K 



CO ifl N COOO tx p VO VO P VP t^ O\vo O\00 -Tl-P . • •vOt-»r^POOCO>ocO'*Tl-CONVOO> 

++++++++++++++++ •++ • • •++++++++++++++ 



;jod3A3jiis a 



Mc^oNi-««rs.foroci'^iH?oco'(a*foi-tMWO)oiMOOOOw covo fs o o »-» m o pi 

II III +++++++ I I ++ I I M ++I ++ II II I 



assoj3 ■B'j «o^ 



•*N«NOMNmmo^^Or^M■*(^Mr^■■^t•lO^^^^^^HlHlH^^■^^>oco^^^^M^^^^pvo 

INI +111 I +11+11 ++I+I+I++I+IIIII + 



sinoi -45 ^ 



COCOMrflHMPlpNC\)MdMf)lOlOPPPlOC1wpMP»M\PMVOTl-N Tf 'lO CO 11 CO 

M I 1 I 1+ I I I l + l 1+ ++I ++1 + 111 + 11111 



EJUBPV iS 



::::1 + 111+ I ++ 1 ++ I +++ I ++ I ++ I I 



SjnqsHld: c2 



XueqiY 



Ocol-^T^>H(^cOM>^^^o^0PP^p^^pMPMNP^^r5MOOO tnOO PI M (^ t^ N covp 

++I l + l 1 1+ I 1+ + ++I 1+ I 1 I I I 1 I 11 



iN(>l'<l-COCJlOMfjcOPCOMNPNMC^NM»opTt-Cq'*COP)Tl-t^w>-cMP10qiHCO 

+ I I I + I I ++ 1 ++ ++++++ I ++++ 1 I + I + I ++ I 



o 

■Bqopjo3 /^ 



* "^ ^^"^ ^ ^^ co-'^pxpxp t^i-i o\CA '<^vo ixcot^ t^rfcocoo o\iow p\ioP o\»H m 

0PPppcJppMMPpcoMPd'-''-'>-'pcOPPNt-tCl+Mpt-<M01i-iMt-ti-i 

++I T + T++1 I T+l+T+l I T + T ++ I ++++++ I 1 + 1 + 



"> ^0 bsCO CN O »-. N CO -^ IOM3 ts.O0 Oi O •h Cq CO "^d" uTO ^^.00 0\ O "-I (^ CO -^ lO^O *^C0 0\ O 



^ >H = 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 32 1 



;Enotj3E-]; "^ 



en t^ M t^ o\ Tj- m li^oo Tj-QO o o\Ttfnwy3 Mco o r^ro 1000 

0000 I NpwOMQOCOt-<MOO»-<NrOCOOON 

.-I. I I T ■ 



I I++ 



I+++T++++++++ r r+ I r+ ++T+ 



I VOn-ClOOONO\NCONfOO tN.\0 C^VO W T^M orxH.tN.Pltn OiOO M lOVD 00 Tl-00 00 O <^ Ov 

BissBqqv jj. I + + + + + + + I ++ +f ++"['+ I I T I I M TT+I I I I f I I I I 



BuuajA V. 



mi3sj-BjW "j;^ 



pBiSii;3qT3S!i3 °d> 



M00SOJ\[ ^• 



y[SUTs3n-j °o 



'oNpdpp'-'OtotHMdot^'-^QooModo'H'-tOMMpot-todnH.o 



r°.TT' 



^^^, 



1 I [+1 T++T++1 + 



• -a- « p O M'OO N 0\MtNM TfO\«^t%p iOt>.p tON into rO\D «0\mtJ-N000>Wio 

lMMdMdd';*di:<MMNd'^"':^ooN"NM'd^dMdpM'Ndddd 

++ ++( i + i + i I T+i 1++1+++T H-+TT1+TT+T 



• NOO'l-OiinNOjMNiot^Oit^iHVOOtOMON 1000 P *^ »0 T)-00 VOt>.N tMOOO 0) 

• NdMddMdMpNdN'ndMMroMNddw>:<>:<d'*dMdwMdpd" 

+++++ I T++++ I [+ I ++ I I T++ I I T+++T+++ T + 



n^o o n moo o >n t> ► 



) 0\V0 H. vo Tt- 1^ t^ IX O\00 NVO Tl-tXM w ■'i-fnp p Tj-o\ 

'MlHNMpPlMmPCOCOfN 



COCV|WNpPOOMWMpr)NpMpMpMl-.NMPM>HmPCOfONMpMpp 

++I+T 1+++ I T I I I +T + T I ++++ I 1 +++ I ++ 11 + 



• a\ o nvo m\o fOM»HMM00fo«Mpo\o\o»oppM m^ tj- m-oo w \o c^ m 00 ro w 

• MM t>;ppMpddNMMMpd"Nd<;ow'dM' ""►<■*" ""^'^"^'oO"0 

+ I +++ I I ++++ I I M ++ I M +111 +++ I ++++ 1 + 



N povo vo M p* <o o »n !-• rovo N w oo W m w Jnvo \o tx'^t-t OMOPOfoOifo i^vo oi oi ts 



siHIX °M 



UEZBNJ 



rOPMPpPpMpMPPPwOfOCOpppMWMpppMppppMI-lMO 

■ ■ ■ I +++TTT I + I TT+++T++++ I + 



++++T+++T+++ 



• po 00 \ri\nt^ -rt- invo votN-WMC^wvoei t^oo iowt-t\omorom cooo m c>i Jn. oi o m tn 
*o»d<^Modowoo<^dMMoii-.i-ipdMdt-iMMi-t(rjcipiciop5Md 



+T+ I I++++ 



TNpMMNMMpPMpMMMMMNNNprqMl 
I + I I +++T I ++++ I I +++ I T++ 



++ 



:tBAav i;z!>I So 



'«OmVO •mMPOOCONP rovo Tt■T^C^«Ol0^^x^sw^^PN 
'PPO •PPmPPmpOmpmmmtJ-tTPPmPmm 

+ T+ ++++++ I I + 1 + I I I + 1 ++ 1 + 



I • w rs. Tj-vo o ^ rf^nin covo "O xdcon lomo o\»n<s moo fo co o^oo im-totsiMciinro 

SrnnTiTiaiPVT o' i •MdfowddddwdNNMdfodwddddMdwdwMwddwddpio 



■ vo a* CO M- ro\o vo o o\fOiH p; tr>'^\r)rj- ^ m inO\ ^s\o 



ziSaj %i 



■rr- 



iO'-»»-'MC)OOfOO»-«00 

++++++T+T I ++ 



IpvOPPPNOOtOMVO 



;U33iqSBX V, 



PPPNMMPPPPP 

1 +++I+++TT 



o\o o '^fO'^intN.ooomo o o\fo o^vo 
idwwd'-'MMiHt-ir^MMdd'-'^'-' 



++T I I l + l l + l T+I 



inBujBa: 5i 



NOO N MVO PU)*00\fOOltxON T}-VO t>.VO 00 00 00 ^ c^ 

'oJfOPWPMp':<c^fodMco> 



to tN M 0\ ■<}■ 0\VD 

' "*« d 9 w d 



ICOPNPMpMNfOpMCOMppMMPptOMNM^PiPpOjpMpp 

+++++T I I +T+++TT+++T+++++++T + T+T + 



jjs^nsiJi '^ 



■ 00 ■* p t--00 P p o\ p 

•MtJ-WMMNmOM .PtMMMMMPppptOMMPMOppCqpPPP • • 

+++++ I I T+ I I ++ I I ++TT++++++TT + T + T + 



o o moo M PJOO^^^^^oc^oo o tn o ^s.^D 0\ c^ o\^n rj- o\ 
°OModopioooo 



pq O\00 CO ro^ N 



^H^d 



• VOtN.i-iN Ttint-t -^ t-i P) fO 

'dpJdwMdwdpMw 

++1+1+1 +T++ 



,0.0 



• ■<il-Oi 

'• M d 

+ + 



njjsuiqoja^ « 



p N 00 00 i>) N ■* moo N ■* p\ t^ 1000 •* mtom ■<too o) ■^oo voMr^mMMNt^pM 

WCqMfOMMfOPPppPMpMpMdc^PMdMpPpMMMMMpWP) 

++ 1 +++ I ++T++ I T++ I +++++++++++++++++ 






coco "^00 o 00 o\ M N moo OO ^J- Ol 



■^Tj-txN M o\ o t^^oo foors.roo '^'H cvM CI 



1 I I I+T++I I I I + ' '+T1T1 + I+T+I I+++I 1 + 



10 j ovcot-iowooi-t rNvo 00 -^d- o\'^ in m\o n ti-oo oooo cofowo cotN.ini>*ts. rfoo mvo m oo 
ajOU'B'T '5' r^Mdto-^MMMC^'t^dfowddpo^dmcorodcJwdfOc^'McoMNdMp^MO 



»N ' m M 00 Pvvo 00 tN lo p TtAO txiOTj-Tt-N jxovp tomp m © t~»^ m N « 00 tj- m tx txco n 
XjBIiaiT S; d"°'^"9"9"'^P'?^O9'^'^<?'^do'r""dMdpr5MMPP0iPP 

Aa u a o. ^ t+++| y + f++]'| I iTl+Tlll l + l I+T++I+T+++T 



jTidS^N g 



) -^ 0\ in -ti- O\00 fO moo O Tj-VO TtmW Ovrn'^J-NVO n <oo\m ovo 0\ tI-OO 0\\0 tJ- o 'O 
wpoc^i>.';twmv^<;odmw<;o99TrdsovO'^wt^'^dovoroin-^»H \q 



I+++I M I 1 + 



'rr 



++T I I I + 1 +++++ I + I ++ 



S3j'ea3£[ 



VO OvOO 0\Tl-ov<j-M inM M O\00 p o\ m O\00 ■<»• O\00 ■<i-oo to tx >o P Ol P m t«0^ M 

rio fO\o dpPQ^MMdpptoI 1 MM\C)cJtoNd*^foPvo to(i-> 0) in P M ro »> <S 
+++++1 I I I+TT+' ' + 1 I I I I I I I I++ 1+ 1 + M 



jBSEsqjs ^ 



p Tj- moo to "100 moo p oo vo m\o -^oo rfoo Mmmpwppp^poopp «oo p «o «o -^ g 
ddNdddMNMwdMPidwpMdMpMcJddmPMNfJdddTJd"') o 

+++T+++++++I T 1 T l + l T++T 1 111 Til 11 I ^ 



rt mvo i-^oo O O HH PI fo -^ mvo t^oo 0\ o <-> ^ <^'^ ^n\o t^oo a> O m m trj rt- inVO Xn.0O 0^ o 
<1J rs. c» a\ o r:^ 



322 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



}3upa JBW3 V. 



up;uojttiaoia 


"to 


VOA 


vo 

a 


saajE^VV M'^a 


00 


sauudg aailV 




aj^IO 


10 


ujnbijiuaQ 


°6\ 



Qjjanog 



U0SJB3 ^ 



Emn_x. ^ 



Euapjj 



331^1 ;iBS i8 



osBjia g> 



auHSiCaqo ^ 



jjojBuisia » 



SSpOQ g 



uojjjireji^ w 



;jO(l3A3jqs g) 



assoj3 Bi ^ 



emo-i -IS 83 



^«^nv ^ 



• 00 M Tf txvo Tj-o"OtNcr)oint-. (ovo N \o o m vo m 



I I i- 1 +T 1 I + 1 ++++++++ 1 +++ I T 



•••T 



I I I++ I + I++++I + 1 ++++ I I 



■ 6 6 " •* 

+++ 1 



^^o^£>oo «*3 ooNot-*oot-"Tj-n»H«o\ovO'«**iOTfNovo •"^•o 



1+' + ' l + l M M f + l+++[ M + 1 T + + 



. M « 0) t^'^M moioovooo o» roooooo COM ^toM . • . . to 
■ coiopplMcqMcoinpi'^coN'MTJ-rirj-wC^op '. '. '. '. -i- 

++T+++I++ I 11 + I M I+++T + 



• CO 0\ 0\V0 MOwoOvfOOTf -^00 O coo COM -^O 0000 0*0 

. M MP) lOCOCOCOCHI-l M H4 0101 rOO"^0 N'MCO^UIWMN W 

++I + I++++ I M++ I ++I I l + l I I 



• • 0\ 0\ M OSOO TfNOfOOiOTfMi- TtkO '■O ■>J-\0 M O tNOO N moo • • • • 00 

++T++++I++I T++I I l+T II l + l I I I 



to MN^^^^oo)(ooooO"^-. tooo t^" o too) "oot^i-oovovo 
M|dlHlAM^^^^oN«•Ht>)^^^^•^(pdd^:^<?«''p^^dd 



.+ ' + 



+ + + + + + 1 + + + [ + I + + + I I + 



moi oofowooiooi o uTO vo M >o ^N 00 -^00 i-i t>. m CO i-( oo\o oo oi ts. 

rCOfOOl OJ Ht 06 oOQrOiopWM M HI iH O do COt^ooo 0) CO"^ 
I++I +I++T++T+++++I T+1+++1 1+ 



■MTfo»HN MOO^rONNNiHiHOlrfoiro 

:++ III 1+ I++++I I l + l I II I 



'J"N'*««tOOOO 



• • "Tttoi-ioWHiiH ■l-lOMOO^^ot^"|-<Ml-lMl-llH^1T^NT^«^^c 

: : :++| +++ :+ + +111111111111111 



•MOMOJlOMVOOCflMin-IHOOCOMM'^MMMinm'^OCItOM^O'^t 

:+ II 11+ +++ : I ++ I + I I+++ II ++I+ + 



c^^^o^o^o^o^MOM^HM^ooo^'«^^ooMO'-'ocoo^cotH^-^o^ocoo^MMO•-''-^^-^^^ 

I++++M II++ +++I I 1II++ +111+ 111 + 



f)MVOlOi-<t^t^OOwOMOPI'-i*'J-l-i"a-tOC<N^'-'l-"'*>ONVONO 
I 1+++++ + + llll+lllll+llllll 



TTfcoM r^o ■^otH Ot-icot-i 01 moi -^ci m Mts-fON oioifoin'^MVO mvo N rf o fi 
++++ + I 1 + 1+++1 l + l I I I I I l + l III I I I + 



o»-<focotHi-io»iooiwwoOMi-ioioi\ooiMOOoii-(OooNoiMci'^'^oin'<tMm 

+ 1 + 1 l + l I I I++I I + M++M ++I I I I I 1 + 1 + 



cOM>HMfO«ONN>Hi-iNtONO\0\OOtON>OMCqN'*OVO"co'OTMOOtOMr) 

I++++I IIII+++ +1 ++II + II +1 + 1 I I I++ 



tOMMIHMHIHI'«t01COOtnMM(-IMmOM . • •fOO'HOMM^^CO'l'COC^I-lfOW 

I 1 I I+ + +I I I + + +I + I +'■■'+ I +1 I II I II 1 + 



IXMMMi-trt-^iH t1-\0 COOC^w mO COrOM COOOCl fOOl w COM "^Ol COiOCOO N >-«N 

++! I+1+I+++ +11 ll+lll+l+l+lllll l+l 



fooonoi-iMoo Thvo oNcoOMQioM m<o i-iMiHMon»>.i-"rotocoiHMi-<o>o 
I I 1 I I I I ++ I I I++I 1++ l + l I II 1 1 I + 



COtHC^N COwmCOtHN M M-'d-MOl N'-l-COtH mcOOw 01 m mo*-" m TflOCOiHCOrOtO 

1 I I ++ 1 + 1 11 ++++ 1 + 1 I ++ 1 +111 +++ 1 I I II II 



. , . .o'-'cocoo10^o»-<MlHoocoooo10^ol^s.t-t^HlHOooooo•-'tHcorooo^co 

::::++ l + l 11+ M + I II + I + ++ 111+ II 



gjnqswTj « 



CqcOMVOroOfOMHiOWMXOfO'HMmNOC^'^fOOM'-'NfO'-'C^'^t^fOrOOlOtH 

I++++ +1 I +++ 1 I I I I +11 ++++I I I I I I II 






eqopjoQ 



COMMOr^MMOMrOP^M'^OMO-^r'lMCO^JNM'^MTj-Tj-fO'-'Ot-'OMtOlHCO 

l + l l + l I I +++ I I +++ I ++++++ I I + ++ I + 



N M omioM ooOwM 01 covo 00 t-xM 01 ooofl coou^o^mco mvo oo m 0\vo *-* in invo t-s 
OMMpodc^QdoNodwoi-iwdMdoifoiHMTj-oidooMMododp 

+++T++I IT I I+++I + I++T++ I I +++ I ++I +T + TT 



nJ uiSO txOO d\ O fH 01 fO Tf irjVO tN.00 Oi O 1 

<u tN. 00 c^ 



01 CO -^ lOVC fNCO o\ o 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 323 



;'Bnoii3t:i Jo" 



tiss-EqqY' 


00 


EUU9Iy\^ 


^3 


AVESJB^VV. 


00 


pBjSmaqBSjia 


M 


MODSOJ^ 


o't' 
00 



• (^ f^OOVO t-< OxVDVO i-'OOVO mo\0 tN,\0 Tt- t>s Tf N O i/lOO -VD • »-* « VO N \0 

+++ I + I I T+++++++++ ' 1 + 1 I T+ + +++T+ 



00 ci cr fovo o^f^ iHinin*-' o^'^p^^nM cooiomvo ovo t*- moo Mvo^nOi^s.o too ^fm 

+ i++++T+r i + T T++++I iiTiTiiTTiiifiMii 



w '<:^N iOC* MM mmfOcoroONTj-O PI n rOt^tXM mt^ TfOO OOO m vo rO'O CO 10 M o 

III 11 llTlIlT Mll+I I++T MM 



. fO "^ w tN tNVO 0\\0 to P 00 N 0\ to to Tj->0 O P\ t>. M PJ t%VO 10 tSi ^ m N •-< "-t tSiXO « 

•PO0)MtHOMpMMOMIHpOOplHlHMNO0idMIHC)dpd»-'IHdw 

++ 1 I ++++++ I + 1 T++T+++++ 1 +++ I [+++ 1 + 1 



• 0'-<<y^Hoorocio<scNiMtHiHOMOMdod'-'»-'OMdoidoopdddd 

+ 1 I ! + !++++! I I+++I I++T+I |++l-f l+TTTT I 



■ M Tl-OO wCO O O O Tf-^O lOOVO O tN.M roWrONOO m 0\m tJ-ih miOtN. tJ-qO VO lO m 

.M(NjM(-tM>-^ntHd'^ooodpoMd'-«dMMC^cJwdd'-^i-**')d'-«ddd'-^ 

++ II ++++ I + + +++T+T+++++++ I + I T++ I T+ 



jjsuESn'j v; 



I l++f++++l I T++++T l + i + M I H-H-++TT 



sjHIX 



• CO c» H 00 '«^oo ^^.eoT^«oo 0\roo m o fOMOO in^vo vo ro CO mvo mvo K^ m m ^ (o o m 

• dt^dc^iHp'cip5dMiHMdMddMdddwdNcJpdpddd»:<dwWM 

+++++T++T+I I T++ +111 I+++T + T 1 I T I + I++ 



UBZB>I V, 



;BAav IFra o 



SJnqutJ^:^BJIa V; 



ziSjj 



. fOM t^MOO •-> iot*^»H\o Tfw invo -^ t-t t^ CO t^ ro 0\ m\o ro m o o oo -^ O\oo i/i o 00 00 
• w'^pdoo'-'doNdd'-'OM-w^-Hwi-idodcooMdcqMnMcofOMd*^ 

++[[++++++ !+++++++ I + |T + + I ++ M ++ I ( + 



•00«OO>OO00Ntx •^iH\0'*MVOt^O\N t^vo 



+ +++++ I I I ++I+T++++++ 



• N N tTN O N Tj-iot-stOtsmtxChOvMOO tOtON O O Omh t^vo N lO O N ^ lOOO t^ M 

^HNMi-iMddddMdpNd'^9"ONodd'-'"pdMddfJNNf^di-" 

+++++T II I M T+T+T++I+ +IT+++ H-+I++ 



• 00 O 0» ^ t^VO 0\0 w 0\t^tN.rOO\fOOviOtN.'<:}*« ts.> 



■ MMP4i-<i-i»HO'-t'-'C')MQfOOfOO01C^p«Ot-t 

+++++ I i+i I +T++++++T+ I + 



;u355qsBx "V; 



inEUiBa °0^ 



^js^njjJi So" 



■fOMOOOP'l'OTftMVO 

•d"tO"ddM"ddt^d 
+ + + + + I I 11 + 



m o( ■^ ^N N ^s N covo rovo o ir)vo 0\ co -^ 



pooooopopooMopoop 

T+++I+T i+ii 1 iT 11+ 



O'^pwpP'-icoo'^ looo in o\ o 'o tN. o r^* o\oo c^ w Tj-o\Ti-co»npvo o cots. 

odeoC^MMMi-tOMOOMdoOMdorOMi-ti-ico'-'c^opwiHNwd 

I +++T ++ +++++ I +++T++ I I T 



+++ I + I 



^oo^lHC^lOi-lvooo^o ••-< covo Tf t^ t^ m -^oo voc*»pma»w»HrfroNr^o\'^in 
"dfo>-<>:'d9dd ■t^>-"pdNdNdd9 9dt;Jd>-iiHt;idN'dr) 



+ + + + 



wop 

I+T 



I'-ipONONppppOt^Oi-'i-iMONOrjcoO 

+T+1 T I TTTT I I+I l+l+l 1+ 



«!^3J ^ 



ujjsujqojs^ 



Oi O O M 0\\0 ' 



+++++++ 



O N O NVO ■*► 

M ol 1-1 M d d ► 



•\0\0 CO . cooo 



rrrr • 



9 9 ■ 9 



+ T + 



VO Ht mVO N0001 W 0\»H Tj-iOM rO COVO 00 0\ COOO 30 '^M'ts.t-' ^COlOTj-COOvM tH i-t 



+r 



++[+++ I ++!+++ I +++[++ T ++[+++ I ++++++ 



II-BUISJ ■BJSQ 2 



\ri\0 OC^-^OVOVOOCOt^cONCO CO COOO 00 f w C^J 0) ' 



rcoinO'-'Oci'-'c^c^ooi-'i^pcoco Tfvo 
M++1 I+++T I++T+I I I 



SJoq-BT g> 



^■l^Il'a 5v 



cots.-^rs.tsiO\N lONOo roc^ ■*« tj- mvo cot-" coooovo -"i-tNiiocot-" w « ts. -^vo oo vo m 
lo Tfvd pTj-coroc^ fod '-'lod dNiOTJ-dvpvp co(*i winciTj-d p5 o^om co-^nn'm 

+ I+T+I I I+T+I++I I +TTT+++ I +++++++++ I I I 



N VO fO N O 00 VO 0\ O " -VOO 0\ CO in tN CO Ov COOO 0\ Ovio Ov mvo 1-1 MVOOO lOt^cOTj-w 

od-<j-dpMC^Mdwd9foddMd':^':^9':^9"'o'^dddMdN"doiH"wd 

++++T I + I+++T I I + 11 1 IT I T+I++++I T++T I 1 + 



jnd3-E|<[ go 



O\t/^r^00 OvO 0\>Om\0 coo CI O M-"^Cv» m -vj-t^mcoi-t in Tj-\o N »o O 00 -^00 M 0\ Tl- N 

i-"dcodddi-'co«codd'4-""coddi-<i-iMwiowc)TJ-df)i--dd"Ni-<c<d 
11+ il + l + l + l + + + I + + + + + + + I + i I I 



+ + + 



sajBusg g. 



4B3Esqis ^ 



M ■T^\o o\ o CO Ht -^ -Tj-vo o\ o\ 0) o\ 



CO -vf C) CO m covo m -^ci moo m ir>Tj-ooovo 



liHrfnC<0)poOppMpC) I I Tl-OC0(vioOi-iNvniHTl-piHNpo>O0»MM 

■+++ I I ( ++T T III ' ' ++ I I I ++ I I ++T I I T I ++ I + 



t^ 1-1 O P vo 9 00 moo vOTl-N0Tl-MCOi-i'<l-NM00t^MO\O00i-iC<t^»OiH00P">O'l' 

ddMi-iddN<^N"ciddcJdd"fid"dMd'fid'-i>-piHdMMdNN""co 

++++ 1 +++++ 1 ++ II ++ 1 + 1 + 1 T T T II I II + M M 



fz; i>* 



y) )n\o tioo o\ o « CI CO Tj- uivo' tNOO 0\ d M « f^ '^ mvo t^od Oi d w N co -^ mvd l^oo 0\ o 



324 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



:)SUI3a JBBJO '^ 



C\COO\MmM\OMO\OtHOMlDlHlH\nO t^M-^Ti- 

1 + I ++I I l + l I 1+++T++' l + M 



• 00 000 Ti-M o\Q ovo bsN « o\Minmm>-i ovo o ro 



upjuojmsoia ^ III 1^^^ I I ++^+.^+++++1 I 1 Mffi 



n^°A v; 



WMt-iCO w OOMDts.-^ Tf^O C0\0 WC0VOmTf(vi00«C0C^OO "tN-Tf 



+ 1 I I ' + ' T M l++l+++r++T++++l T + 



SjajE^ XjBQ 'c^ 



+1 1+++1+1+1 1++1+1 l+l I T 



sSuudg '3!IV 'i^ 



SJBID 



CO o\ covo intN.Osincoo\M on'-'Oovo po cooo cqco cots.»ori m o 



• oooocqTi-Tfp^oojgioOspMO^'-'OinMtnM'iH'^tx. • • - »- 

++++++U I I I l+I l + l I + 1 + 1 M 1 I I 



Tft-t cofoiN.Tfcoo»Nvo ts-iH u^M foo\a\o coo iiio\ooo -tt- trt 



.lOO»HI-HPlCOt-lO»-'MMNOMC10M»-tOOfOI-<01ptHCO • • • ••-* 

++n-++i + i II + I + I + I++ imTm + 



umbTtiu^Q '4 



I +T I + 1 I T++++++ 1 +++ l + l I ++ 1 ++ 



ssijnoa; -o" 



o\oo fq woo o\no " ovm TfTf«« n mvd o w voiotort-iowoo « 
d<;o"j-NpvdoMN(^'vdod'oo«M>;<i-<NfoNNi^oJNMM 
+ 1++I+ + +++ + +I++I II I l + l l + l I II 



U0SJB3 ^ 



:++|+ I II++1 l+l I +1111 



^«»tiA 2" 



• • -WmMMl-lWlH •PJtHfOfOrqMOlOwOOHIMWCOOMOCOOWP^O^tO 

: : :+++|++ 1 : I+++ 1 ++ I +11 I I 1 II 1 + 



Buapjj 



11+ I 1+ I++ :+++ I++I 1+1 I++I 1 l+l 



351^1 ;iBs ^ 



OWi-'coOronoOroo«MiHCOt^OC^lMMwi-.iH?oto>-tMtHCOMCV)C«)-<:l-T}-oO 

1++ II 1 +I++1 +1++1++I l + l + l + l 1 I 



osBjia s 



C10MCOlO'*inOMCONOC^»OiOCOMTffOi-"01C101i-tCOO\OC^'«4"0»0 

:| +++++ ++I I I I I I 1 I+++I II I I I I 



3UU3YC9tl3 ^ 



roiHWwwofOmwmrO'PirofOM>-iMOi>-toiot^roofOMOt-<'-tMtHMri-oio 

I ++++ +++ 11:11+11+1+1 1+++ +1+111+ 



JJOJBUISTa ^ 



aSpod 



111 1 1 ++ 1 1 1 + 11 ++ 1 +++++ 1 + 1 ++ 1 1 1+1+1+1 



'^MOcoococoM\otN.Tf.Nfooot^'-<*oot-»'^Mp»ioThcoiooc^MNMWTj*r^ 

I++ 1 + 1111:11 l + l 1 + 1+++++ 1 + 1 I l + l 



UOi^mX CO 



jjodaASjqg n 



I +++++++ I 1 I 1 ++ :++ : : : 1 ++++ I 1 ++++ I + 



O O M (H to cooo WCOWwTf(^i-iNi-tCOco»-*'^OTfNi-i\OMMfOwO»0«-'N(^Nt 

++ I l+l +++++ 1111111 ++ 1 + I ++ I r 1 + 1 + 



8SS0J3 eq ^ 



cot-iiHOt-tONW'^for^WMCot-tcoiHow»nTt'«'<i*i-t ccoo tj- covo w m w w o »o w 
I++ + +1 I I l + l l + l I ++++I++++1 1 1++I + + 



smoi -^s g 



I 1 + 1++I 1 M++1 I 1 1 + + +++ 111 l+l 



ElUBllV ^ 



11 + 1 1 ++M l + l +1 I++I++I I+++++ 



3jnqsi;i£ ^ 



Cq CO N CO M C0\0 MClCOMM)HWCOCONMMIH0(CqCOOCl\OMCOnCO^Mir)C*lNO 
1 + + + 1 ++ 1 l+l + l+l I 1 + I ++ 1 1 +++ 1111 + 111 



XttBqiv 



cicoo^-<'^wwMMMCocsWMoi-«ooM'-'«cqMPqoimojwt*HMC^coo»-'t-i^-' 

1+ I11++I + I + 1+ 1 + 1 ++ 1++++I I 1 1+ Ml 



BqopjOQ 






d 


■*O\C0 


w ID\0 1^ COOO 


■^ M \OVD00 '^ 


coo\t^in 000 


MVO 0\ CO CO 


"00 coco 


fOX/l 


o\ n 




rrr 


P M CO 
[+1 + 1 + 


coi- w HH 


n W HH Tj- W 

1 1 1++I 


.00 


rr 


TT+r 


TT 


II 




















































































rt 










































































■0 tvOO 


01 M M CO Tf mvo ^^.oo o\ o t-t 


M CO Tj- iD\o t^OO C^ 


M cq 


CO Tj- li-)VD 


^^.oo 


o\ 



>('» 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 325 



•4enoii3B'i ^• 



> Tj- N ov m \n m M o\oo co o» -^ (^ m tJ-\o p) 



+ I++I 



TT 



I +T+ + + + + + + ' ++ I I 1+ + + + + + + 



Bisseqqv go" 

pBjSqjsqEsjia <y 
n 

A\O0SOJ\[ °^ 



I+++ +111(1 I++++I M I T I I I 11 I I I I I I 1 I I 



o\ « M 00 10 10 c^ fooo 10^ rooo o bs.in(o«\o ^^^^MVo Tj-t^^c* o ts.oo m tN* tooo f o 



TiT^rrr 



rpp)oopooiHpooop>-ipi 
11 T 1 + I T++I T I T 



+++T I I I I i + M I + I + TT+T++I++I 1 T+Tii T 



• TfTj-OIOOVO (^Tj-tO TfOO WN.MVOTfti>OlONt^ «vO Tf O\00 0\ CO lO N CO o\ W OiVO ^ 

■ wMowpppdM>Hppwdcoodpod""d':"c^opodt^MpoMM 

++I I T T T+l ITT 1++++T+++++I++T+++I TT+I 



Tt-c^VO w OvO <OO\f0 ijpoo ■<i*C^ rocOM tNM fOO 000 P)VO roc^iOTj-0\0\TfO 0\V0 --^ 

+ 1 T++I+++I++I T I f I I I T I 



rMi-iNO>-i<^i-i-*NpM 
I I l + l + M M I 



'.MO^pippoocitlippMPMWpoMdoociNoi-'OoiMdiHi-it-ii 



STSUPSm- °' •QMNNOpOOC*NpOMpw'-'pOMOOOC^«OMO0»MO»HH*wMM 

ijsuEanT J, TIMM++IIT1I ++T1I ++I I ++M + 1IIII 



smix 



. lOVO \0 0\'^Tj-miO0\'*-t-t O rON pqO co-* "^OO w ^ v»o o\t>.^t^o 0\0 »ON 0\0 

++TT++++I I I I+T+++++T++T+I+TT I I T+T 



• M-00 1-1 tN (o ■* t»,\o 00 m moo -^txo o «vD t^ojoo N ■^^t^ -^^o m 00 N ■* m t^vo >£> 
IIP7-PXT o- ^dp>HpwdNi-'c^'Hdddo«ddo'^di-idwMd"dNddo9Pdp 



;BAav nzra o. 



• omo '00 d"Ooo"d ^doiiHd"ddpddd 

I ++ + T++I+I+ ++1+++1T+++ 



3jnquus:>-BJi3 



. 00 t^ OMn ^vo (oocot^or^Tj-oiooiHioicocooini-t m\o moo Ovc^ ^i-i/io cocow 
IddoMMC^d>-'»o«'ddd"dpdd«""dddd>HMwddd">HMd 

++ I I +++ 1 I I +++ T+ I +++ I +++ I +++ I ++ 1 I + 



ziSji "„• 



• 6606666'^ - - - - 

+ + 1 + + + + I I + + + + + + + + + + + + 



oooMo^owod'-'tHOic^ 



+ 1 



;u3iiqsBx 'm 



imjUJBa 


0*^ 


Jisjnjiai 


VO 


UI>ISJ 




iijjsujqojs^ 


in 


imUSJ •EJ3Q 


If 



sjoqB'j 


"^ 


iCjBipa 


0° 

3\ 


jTid3B^ 


^ 


esjBusa 





• vo o\oo 00 vo w w m ^ o\ 

CoWmPOmmOmO 

+++++++ I ++ 



CO CO 10 M W (H tnvo W rs-tSiCOiH roo '«tco 

ddoModwwodddppwpp 

I 1 1 iT+i + l I++TT + TT 



cocoM o w o\om-^c^ -^vo 0\vo mt^ot^coi-twocqi-<t^io 0\\0 O^ t^ m o^ 0\ 
d'H'^cJddM"«"d"dddMpiddModdc<MMododc^HM 

I ++ i +++ I 1 I + I ++ I ++++++ +++++T+++++ 



. N Tj- O Tf O • '<t Os'O • 10 W VO M tOVO ■<*■ P) CO 1^00 nt-t mVO on Mts.i-itvt^O» 

^ d !N w' d M ^ d "T" n' * d c^ 

+++I I +1 I II 



rlHMI-tl-lOOP'-' 
I i+i 1+T I 



■ tx O "^VO \0 M N M vo 

^wdpdddddw 

+ T+++I I I 



" ■* P) 00 ■* ■* M moo ■* to 



; -"i-o ■* ;oo N. 
• M d d '• 6 6 

+ + + + 



ri-M moicOMioo\w 000 O -^mTj- mvo o -^O o rotxOvp rotsOjvo moo^» tn t 
MddpjMMOO'-^MdtspdMdtHdpdMdMMMMONO'-^t^W'-'f 

++++++T++I + I T++++ T 1 +++ I++ I +++++ 



Owc^mt^coNi-ir^ ■*oo ■* ov t^ 

■^COTJ-'^MwdfJcOOMMOf! 

+ + + I I ++ 1 + I + + + + 



inso 00 C0C4 convo w^i-t o\ moo O fO (S 0\ o t^ 
i-«'^odc^du^(-iO'-'odfodn>-<'-''ri-nPi 

+ l+T I+I+++++I++I MM 



^s^i^r^O\OvN o mw co-^tN. lovo tj- o\oo "-^vo tN.o\Tt-tNvNvo ■ti'iorN.rofO'^ioovci tN.o\ 
owd\■^i-^T^Ti•pr^.^HMdl'lpl-•lnpvoN^HMd■^t^lndoe^ONvd•-^M^s.pM 

+ 1 + 1 I I IT+I + I Ml iTl + l I + I ++T++++++ I 11 I 



inoo focoo\N ovM 01 pvooo M COM co^o\M\o\o ^*o moo *-« mm onvo co fo o\ m o ctv 
wMfodc^dMMdciMwndpMdroTfdwpwwpiwdrodwpdc^ddd 

' I TT i + M 11 T+++1++1+T+1+ T 



+++1 I ++++++ 



N M 00 ro Tj-VO moo f Ov 10 f^J t^*00 m O fO N COOO N 01 '^Tt-iOO^ rn 0\ -rt 0\ O ' 
*pNCOOMrj-wpcvJ(vJdodH*»7*»7'»7'dpioromOoiM-OOod 



rpi-tONCOOWTj-w9^101000i-'»-*»;^i-(OPlpfOmp(^Tj-OpOOfOro>-<p 
T+l 1 + 1++1 T+i I I I I I I i + i T i+T 1++T+1 I i+T 



mM o»Tj-'^rj-iDC^t^coN (I cjoo 



cocoTj-o o Oio 1- r^o\o o\o o mTrf)00vov£> 



romi-ip"ppcoOcsp'-'"| I p"Ocooi-."tooopM«i-i«ppooo 
+++T+TT+T iT II ' ' T i+i +11++T++11 I T+++ 



jBSBSqTg 



T^c^vo Tfo\mo»»oo '""^ ^^^-• 0*00 -st^j c^vooo com T^o^ovP^oooo c^-00 t^ m co tJ- o\ ► 



MtOCOMONl-lOlHWIHppMl-lMl-lMlHMMppppHpiHNpNCOO 

I ++++++ I+++TT++I + I I I iTTTT+Ti iTi i + 



I 1 1 



! ?5 mvo bsOO o\ c I 



CO "^ "^vo ^vOO 0\ o M N fo -Ti- mvo t^oo o\ o "-i N fo -^ lovo ^^oo C\ o 

^ S. B. 



Ht M l-l »2 



326 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLAI^EOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



;3U!3>i pBJ3 '4 



' N O t^ N irjCO Tj-vo Tfc»t^O\t^O\OPl\0'^ t^txl 



+1+1 I++ I T+T I I+++++I+I 1+ T 



uisjuojuiaoia; \; 



I I ++++ M ++ I ++++ I T I ++ I + 



^JOA °u^ 



. ID i-t rf n 

^ 6 d 6 oi 

+++I 



00 t>. w VO O tOOO •-< M fo U^OO >HC^•-^^^Ot-•t-^^s -lO 
OOod^JOOOOC^O'-iOCOOOt-iOtHCq Ii-t 

I+++I I l + l + l I I 



Vi 



SJ3}B^V ■^[•EQ 



^ 



dpi-^pdcoMwco-^fodTJ-diHMddMdMw 

+11+1+ 



T+T++ I 1++1+1+ 



sSuudg aonv °" 



+ ' I T+l + l 1 I + I++M I 



+ 1 ++++ 



^s 0\ fO O CO rovo O N O O COOO VO 00 N M o (^ ■ 



a-i^lD °r^ 



++ 1+ I++I+1 T 



T+++I++ 



Pi 
w 
pa 

:^ 

H 

P-. 
w 

I 

m 

Pi 

o 



o 

en 
W 
e^ 

H 

pi 
-< 

fin 

W 

Q 

W 
P^ 
P 
H 
< 
Pi 
W 

PL, 

w 



umbTjiuaQ °o 



*0*<tNCOCOM10odN 



1/^ CO o\po "^ o 



r^oc^ioj •'^MO-'tNcocoMioooN'-'noc^oi-tocococorj 

+ T I + M + I ++++++++ I I I +++ 1 + I ++ 



sjjjTioa ^* 



CO w 00 w 0\ Tt-\0 VO M\0 U^MOO Ovn 

d C) CO 



1 -^OO COIO'^NOOVO *C0O\ 



3COMi-iNocoiH"VOCqMioNMMMpMCqp|OM'!fN-<tO 

I l + l + l +++++ I +++ I I T I + I +++ 1 ++ 



uosaBQ JQ 



• \0 CO N CO ^VP M CO t-t M Tj*VO in »-< Tf C^ M CO 

:+++l+T I I I I++ I I++++I I I II 



Buirijt 8 



• I + 1 I I + 1 • I I + 1 I + 1 I I I ++ ' I I I I I 11 + 



BuapH «£• 



• -^cocof^oo (^ M w o\0 co>H t^Pi coThmcoi-i in^O\M mvo io-^m c^ o ■* 

:+ I ++ I + I +++I++++ I + I +++ I I + I +++ I + I 



33IEHIBS f; 



fooOlomc^^oor^^^•-^M^^rs.rtMMvoNlOM^-lMfo^oco^^o^»-tOcl^^c^^^'-' 

+ I + 11 + 1 + I++I + 1 + M M+++ M 1+ 1111 + 



OSBc[ la ,£• 



: +1 ++I I I I++I I II + + +I 111+ 11 + 



annaXaq^ fj. 



OMfOMOCOClMMM .wcoc^O'-'ioMojcoiorJ-McocoMcomoc^t^McoPltH 

11+ |+++|:++| +++I + I+++MM +II + I + 



sjojBuisig; 



Tj-'^P(M(^)\OOlMCOwMO-^MMmcO'*'-''*C^COC^C^'^lOOt>.PVOOOin t^^ t-t 

l + IIM + ll + 1 +1 ++++++ I +++ II I ++ I ++ I 



aSpoQ 



t-ttHi-tMWt-tPliOC^C^tHpMt-iMtHTj-coplOOIVOt-tMPt-iCOONCOC^tHCOC^CO 

I +++ I ++ I + I I +III++ + I +++ +1 ++ I ++++ 



uo;>iuBj^ 



p^)Ol-"T^^coowp^^^^NN 
l + llll'^l + lll I I+ + + • • •++ I I II + l + ll 



jjodaASjiis g 



cooMt-tt-ttN-^i-t-t co\o pco'*tHcocoptHCopeoco^pcimc>icoococ^N':J*t-icim 
1 I I I I + I ++ ++ I I I I + + + + ++ I I + + + + I + + 



assoj3 -e-j ^ 



lOVO COnvOM-Pwt^cOOltHTj-Tj-t-tMt^P'^ClVOTt-t^Tj-MPClTi-CO'-tC'lTt- coco tH t-t 

M + lll 11 + 111111+ +++I++I I I I I++I + I I 



smoi -48 K 



C0lOtHPTfN0\M0rt-C0iHpc0 COiJD lOtHCOOfNPTt-tHTfcOTfOMi-CONCONt- 

III ll + l +1+ I I I+++ +I+++++I +I + I + II 



Bjuepv <S 



• • • •Tj-Ti-nc^t-tcoioc^JomPicstHCitHt-tri--^copO-^cocoi-*coMi-totHt-tco 

::::|| + ll + l+ I I I + I +++++ + I II +++ 11 + 



Sjnqswij 



rj-t^pPTj-tHt-ttH cooo of^co^Ncococopc^c^^op^coP^^tl/^c^Nt-lpc^^o^co^c1 

11+1 11 + 11+ +1111+ I ++ I ++ I + M + l + l + l 



jCu-eqiv % 



ri-tr)tHt-tTi-P\OPCOCOOC^COC^t-t(N)Tj-PTi- Tj-\P OtHlOt-txnNOWClP-^OtntT^P 

I I ++ 1 + 1+ +II + I+ I++ ++I++ +1 + +1 



eqopjo^ 



vocxoic^«r^o»ooc^co Otvo co co txvp « os t^ t-i r^ moo o irioo o t-i « . m t^\o o\ tt in 
d"ddpcit-;dp6dddt-^dt-Ji?pNt-<'pcqptHddco'-'M ■dd"r'9°d 

++++[ I ++T++I++ I I IT I I++T I T++++ +11 1 + ] 



^ lo^o t^^oo c\ o t-t N CO ts- lovo t^oo o\ d ft N c<> Tj- m\o 1^*00 o\ p i-i « co ^^ tj^\D Nao o\ P 






NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 327 



p ■* N o\ o\ ^.^ 00 o 00 1 



5 0\ M N r->. Tj* 



VO Tt TJ-VOOO 



« M in t^oo 



;-Bnox{3T;'j "„• 



TtSpppNNHii-MOlPN-^tOPI IpppMp .« .>-iMror)p 



BisscqciY 




Tfi-i ^Oit^-^POMr^o^ts^ovo ^p 


« N ■<j- oioo n ^ noo 00 o\ n 


*^ N ro W COOO t^ TT t^ 




ciwyOMpdoMOi-pdodp 
1 1 +++++++ 1 T ++ 


mrrr 


r^T+rr 


M 1 1 1 1 If T 




BUUSI^ 


0°. 
(1 


•P'OP00MPPC0i-.lH\Ot^t^O\PC<lO>P00O\t<<T3-p Tl-00 p 


n-vp p\ tovo p, o> ■-• 




.«<[1"PPNP000WPPW 


M p p W p 


rr°r°+ 


pppMppop>- 

+T+T+I+I 




AIBSJ-B;Y\. 




• VO >-l OlVO O\<«0txr<3(»5WO0 « NVO 


M\0 P) tN 0\ N 


P M ■«• c<5\0 P 


NOO ■<r N t>.iOTj-p . 


10 


.pmi-IMPMMplHPlHMpf^ 

T I+++1+++1++T 1 


p P rop fl M 

T++T 1+ 


p p 9 p p p 


l+l+T T 1+ 


K? 



pBjSinsqESiia °4- 



• C) t-. 01 TT N M 0\\p NPMO^mo^^^o^fOl-<^s Oivp rf p p oo ^^v^ oowmmhOi-^n 

iMMr^PpNPMNPPNpNPPtOMNpMMMMPHMdpMMPplOP 

+ I++T I++I i + T 1+++1 I 1++1 + 1 I 1 + 1+1 + 1++ 



AVODSOJ^ 



• M N P -^POt^r^M ■^\o p in cooo M M- N rh -^00 00 TJ-'O 0\ rovo f^MOOVpvo o\p tJ-co 

■ MC0MpMMPC>)NMMNPMMMMpC0ddl-I"pMO«""p<Sppt0P 

+I+T+I++I I I++I+I+T I I++I+I I l+l T I T +1 



3IsuBSn'-[ 



' t^t>.'^tvW 01 mpOOOO T^cqoO in rj- rj- o O O O TfP O\O\P00 0\0\^txO\p Tt-VO 00 

dPldMrO'-<MPqMMppMp'<^MpMMdfOwM 

+ ■ ' ■ 



N>HlHpOMOMni-lNNl-.l-IPplHp'*MpMMptOl-lMMP-lplHNprO>-l 

+ 1 + 1111 + 111 + 11 T+ I I l + l + l I I I l + l I T+l 



siyix °d> 



• C^ txOO P) Tj-bsMM M roONfO tN.00 0\ 01 0\ t-f O O 0\00 VO Tl-VO C^ M -^ 1-1 loVO 00 M >o "^ 

++++ I + I + I + 1 +T+++++ II ++ I + I + I I T 



++ 



UEZBNJ °Q 



• oo o\a*(M ^^'^^fo^^ looo >-* to m vp co p <^ o\oo n vp vo ■'t t^oo ootocqNiot^t^txp\t^]oo 
. CO M M H d N " M ro p M ■^ " p " " d " !-■ d d oi "' "' d " w d M M w p d rj- d ( p 

++ I I + I ++ I T I ++T+ I ++ M ++++ I I I + I + I T+++ " 



;eajv lizi^i °^ 



p\O00'*-vo .o\Nt^in P\vo (M .ppTfPPe«3Pro> 

d <s d M ' 



'+T++T+ ■°+TTTT°+T ' + 



3jnquij3jB}i3 gj 



• vq ■* M Tfvp 00 >-■ in\o 00 p p 00 VO ^^ cooo o f n ov\o p\ -^oo ao T^nn covo vo txoo ts 
'rodMdMpJppcodd-*"i-d"PNddpN'oi'MdwpppNdooNo 

+ T + T+ I ++ I T ++++ I ++ I +++++ I I I T++T++++ 



ziSJI °j. 



• P lO On P inoo CO (^1 t^ lo p 00 P^ t^vD p n -^ mvo 00 tt 
. riciovocoppcoowcoPcowMMCopcqMCo 
+++ I + I ++ I + I ++++ I ++++++ 



•00TflOOIHO<MCOPP 



jua^msBx °(^ 



pconMo\Mp\cocoMcqvo-*piHOOco 

"NMpd"dd' 

I++I 1+' 



[ i + i+Ti I 



inBUJBg '^ 



■Tf-*NPP'*iHiO"CONCOt^Tt-rJ-t^C>l'<J- 1,,00 lo p w lO t^vo lo cq o J^ M t^ N 

• MfO)H'-«cqopppdcopc^piHpcioIiHcowMPMCviMcippptHciM 

++++ I I + I T++ 1 ++ I ++++++++++++++++++ 



Is^njiJi "^ 



i++ + III +1 M I I I 1 Til I I I++T 1 I I I II 



UIJ^SJ "o 



a\oo oo CO o o vo M o 

C^OOOi-tOOr^O 

I++I I 11 



ICsjVOtO-^N t%i-. M Tj-0\ 

■ ■ ■ +T ' ■ 



++ 



+ 1 + 



coTj-n- -co 

6 6 6 '• 6 < 
I f + + 



IIJJSUIIJDJS^ 00 



P P POO t-t mcOTflOP Wt^ COVO MMMt^VDO\Pl-^(N| COOO PI 00 COVD CO 01 CO O »-" • • 

dcopdoJdoiM'ojMd"d""""0'-'oidddpdoiMO)pi-ippi-ip • . 

I +++++I+++TI I +++ I + I ++T+++++++++T 



JI'BmSJ •BJ3Q 2 



> M P COOO Tf O\00 o^ 0\ 01 t^vp « 



^ H n COOO vo OD P lOVO P 01 vo 00 P OVOO i-< CO c<> 

cod"d>Hd'^"""'-'0'^°"'^""^'^' 



PO^Mp^-^p^-^OlMppcoP^i•| | COpMQMpOlt-ttHWwpOlOkHCOt-iCOOip 

+I+T I T+l+T [+++' I++I++T I l+l l+l+l l+l If 



SJOq'E'J 



low -TtOvfOP i-«t^moioot^>-«oo looioi t^oivp poo oomeOM m tj*p wvovp o\pvoio 
iocoM-NpooMTJ-foo^dcoojMoJdMOO'*MCoc^Mpt^V'Npdoip'*ri-'*'*N 

I I++I++I I I++I++++I I I ++11 + I + T ++I + II + 



^■'^ipa s. 



00 0\ts.O 0\0 OMn-^rO'^OxcOTfO tN^VO VOVO^OCfl Hiir>^O\'-'00 O •-• "HtNts-iH 0\C1 TT 

dMdwMwdMdtHpdt^'dfoc^'winNMiHTJ'C^cJdtr't^dd'-'wv'^'^^'^ 

I++I I I+I++T+I+I 1+111111111+ I ++ l+l II 



jndS-B^ go 



P 01 TfOVCQlolOO OIVO lo tOVO CO t^VO vo IX t^- COOO COOMtxCOTj-Mi-tTfOV0)i-<0100tx 

MPorid"Md"oioocoiodo!Md'*N'-<"H.'-4wdti"d>ddd"oipopdM 

I I ++ I I ++ I I ++[++[ I I I I +++++ I I + + + M ++ 11 



S3JBXI3g 



w fD In* rs.vo ^s lovo \o fo tj- m T^ Tf 

+ I ++ I ++++ l+l+l I 



O t^OO vo O^VO O O CO rs. t^ 0» OOO ts. w TO ts. « o 



IT 



+++ 1 + 



copppPMpo»NPi 

I [ TT+I++++ 



jB3Bsqts gg 



0\ -^ Tf- C7\00 ONt^iOt^i-t ^M t-i N N GOO Tj-O tN roO) Ots-QOO 0\^s.'^3•M too OMTi'^ 0\ 

++ I +++ I [++ II ++ II ++ II I II II +T I ( I + II +T 



"^\o rN.00 c\ o M Pi CO ■^ m^o t^oo o\ o >-> ^ f^ '^ u",vo b-oo 0\ o 

>,<£• " ^ a 



d f^ Tt" irjVO l-vOO O O 



328 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



■*0O M O »0 O 1- t^ <OVO OCOWMMOO*-* OOfOUTJ- 



;3U;3^ JBEJQ 



+IIIIII+ITII I++++I ' I M T I 



u;3:;uojui30ig; '^ 



>IJOA °M 



I 1 T+ 1 + I T++++T++ 1 ++++ I I ' ' ' I 1 + I 



sjaiB.w Xpa o 



sSuuds. 33!IV 



3-I^ID °ci 



• VO TfOO O 0\ VO\ON00O\OO0 M-VO O VO OO C^CO N VO ^ 01 00 tN 

++ ' + I++I l + l I T++I M++I 1 I I I 



T r 



c) MOO t-tcio t>.\no i-tioiHO\M o^ o o\io»nro T^\o 



I I I I ++++++ 1 iT+i i + i T I 1 + 



I I I I l + l I !+++++!++++ I I I I I I I 



•C1C^(^tH0lMlOMr»MMO^f0fOlOW^0i'=J"MI-tM»H^Hod\ 

I l+l l+l +++ I T I + I ++ I + I + I +++ 1 



UTribtjixiaQ go" 



ajjjnog; °tA 



w M t^ o mvo mroMd*OMcJ«ocii-towcootN.4*^MP(^wiH«*3 

+ 1 l + l I 1 + I++I+++I + I+T++I + I I 1 + 



00 00 00 o Tfoo cow eoHi xodoo^o Ti-o\«HOO o c) o\ »ooo t^ m o 1 



+'i+iiiTi++i +++I 1+1++1+1+1+ 



UOSJB^ 



BuitiA tg- 



■BuspH 



•tO<^IH«OOHIl-lt<5T|-TfO>OfOt«3MlOMM 

:+l l + l I+++I I I+++I I I I I I I 



:++ I I I I : I ++ ++ ++++ I + I ++++ ++ I I ++ 



•+ 1 I T++ 1 I ++ 1 ++ 1 +++ 1 I I ++++ 1 ++ 1 ++ 



s^-e-j ;iBS ^-++11 II I +1 ++ I + M + + + I I M ++ + I ++ I ++ 



osM la "g. 



auuaXaqo g 



OTt-lHNt>)0>-lOl-IMPl-lC0Ofq-*inNNl-lM0«»30»Of<'HTl-NMM 

: ++I I I ++ +1 +1 M + I+ + I I I I l + l 



++ I l + l I I I++ : I +1 + 1 +1+ I I+++++ I I + I++ 



o 1 MMO)\Ot^tHCOPlCOfO'-iM-rOOu^OPliOOlOt^W rjrOO (^IVO rJ-C»\0 inTfiOTfM ooo 

5iDjBuisie: ^ : I + I I ++ I I I + I + I + ++ I + I + I I + I ++ I I ++ I + 



aSpoQ R 



UOJJJUB^X. ^ 



+ 11 +1 I+T l + l I I I 1++1 1 + 1++++++1 I I + 



ITII + II l + l + llll +1 : : :+T++++++l l + l 1 + 



o rJ*C»'^OC^'^*^Tt*-5^roioOMwOrS01t-ti-iMrOC^tN.<N'<i*rOMi--tHroWvOMCSCO"-« 

;jO(l3A3Jiis f^ III +1+ + + +I I I I I+ + +I I + I+ + +I l + l I I I+ + 



SSSOJQ B-I P I I I I + I I + I + I + I I I I I ++ I I I + 1 ++++ III I + 



sjnoi -is 58 



fo CO v-i covo c^p^'<^^OT^co^*^cocoT^coMMO»-^lnMO\ tJ-vo ^^T^cooo^c;^co^HC^p^ 
II + I + I++I + I + IIIII+ +11 + 1 + + + + I I I I 1 + 



c;uBnv 



. - . • P CO -^ CO covo VONCOTj-MCOC^MOMtHI-llOCOMCOMPPC^MOPVOpCO 

'•••'■ I ++++ I + MII1+ +II + I +++ + I T + + 



Sjnqswjj VO 



int^c^ Mvo cocococi ^n m coovi^mcoc^ o p txt^^t*c^ rfoo i-toi-ti-iOTl-txMoo»H 

+ I + I + 1++I+T+I I I I I 1 11 + 1+++ 11111 + 1 + 






inV5CONlOOCO'*NOON<>)t^P(CO!S>HNMTt-T|-Tj-IHt»t^CqO"<OC^"fOM-NCO 

I I I++ ++I +1 I I I I I++I I+++++ +I++1 + I + 



BqopjOQ 



O COt)-m mCO-^O w COIOm '(J-COi-i cop com CO-^N cop »0m m Tj-t%P CO•^^T^ covo 00 

dpc^'opMpfOPpdpPPPpdd'^"P"«c')ppcoc5ppP"dpdd 

T++T I ++++++++++ T11T++1T+++T T+T+T+ 



rt in\o i>.oo 0^0 M w c^ -tJ- in\o t^oo 0\ 



w M CO -^ inVO tv^CO C\ O w tS CO -^ invo t^oo a\ o 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 329 



+ 



> Ti- o tN o inoo t^vo 00 o »^ '^.00 • •<t « f.vo 00 



++T ' I I I T I ++ I + +++i'+++in-i +T+++ 



+ 



+ 



AVBSJ-E^ 


00 

+ 


pBj3t{;aq-Esii3 


0°. 
oo" 

+ 


AVOOSOJ\[ 


+ 


^smaSn-j 


So' 

+ 


s;B!X 



+ 


UEZB^J 


Vi 

+ 


;bajv nzjS 


M 

+ 


gjnquuajEiia 


+ 


zi3ji 


+ 


ijugjjqsBX 


+ 



\nvhiJVQ " 



oror^t^N Tfo lomtxN o o mvo mm rfoo owo mooooomnooni-ui ovvo w vo 00 

I I+TT+ i+TT H-++T++T+I ( T+TT++I++T I i T i 

m 1000 w c^ rO'»i-iorots.-^t-< o fO 

I I +1+111+1+1 



• 00 00 o» t-t M eovo »-t ^s. N p), in. w c^ o\oo ^o <-< rr> o ^s. m moo w c^ roi-iorots.^* 
.owwwopooodpwt;<Mt-»0'-to»HO'-'i-.i-io»-iowi-.op'«i-pro> 



TT 



r"TT 



. N 10 HH VO 10 CO ■^ "^VO VO 00 00 moo CO N PJ Is. W CO^O VOlOCOOOOcOl-l(^^^s»HP^OCO 

■OMf^PtHfOMOOOOM 

+ I + T I I I+T+' ■ 



+I+I+1++T I+++ 



Tp p* o m M CO 
11 1+1+ 



• l^ I- 1^ t^ moo MNr^TfMONMNNTfO 1000 t>.M00>H>OMiHlotsNO>»xMTrO 

.MMPO>HdlHNMdtOMdNOd9MP-<dN'<i"dMdf59fid>HMMM(>iT}-W 

I I +++ 1 I +++ I ++ 1 T++++++ 1 ++T I +++ 1 + 1 + 1 






OpTt-MCOMOlMMMWpofOpp 

I T++I I I+++I T++I [ 



I + I +++ I +++ 



+++ I + I 



•OO'O Tf*Tfr«5i-i t>NTj- fOOO N inOO TJ-OO TfOO iH TfiiOO t«01 O O lOt^NOO OOO TfM 

lMMNts'"Mc^MM)HMi-it^'c>iddd">-iroNdc^dcodNdd'<td"'"<i-<'^ 

I I +++ 1 I +++ 1 ++++ 1 ++ 1 +++ 1 ++ I +++ T I I + I 



■*0 l^«ts 

M M 6 d d 



PlMOOt7'»7*C)OMpMp9Ot7<»7<O9Of0tHppr0OM 



MMOOOMNMOO'Hl-lNOMpMOpOM'HOOOfTHpprOOMlHOI 

I ++++ 1 I +++ 1 +++ 1 T++T+ 1 ++++ 1 I T [++ 1 I + 



iioi^N MtoixM too o Mooi^txn o\ n\o n t^ t^ mvo i^ o vo O\oo n txoo o>vo 0\ m 
"9roNf)MTi-)HNd«pON9d>-i«NtO'*d'*c5Nd'^^'-"+ddMNN 

1 T++I I I++ I T++TT I+I++I I++T I I++T+I+I 



Tj- •OOcO'^mOC^i-ffOOl rj-v£) O 01 bv CO N O 



pWO^l .Tj-'OwOpl-lONOMMIHinCSMWCOt-tlCO 

11 + I + +I+T 1 + M++++I + I++' I 



o 00 Tf (O rooo tN m 10 rtoo vooovD^*•*o^NO\o^^xC^TJ• cooo " m ivjoo 10 n. t^ t^ m 

>Nd«rOMd'l-dN9co9Md"'*'dM'wto-^d<:o-^«9"««"Tt'ddNNfJ 

I+++I I I++T I 1+ +i++i++ri++f I 1++ T T i + i 



++T+++ I +++ I +++++++++++ 



•O'ONmmO'OVONi-1 tHMOONtx ■*'0 tOO "VO Tj-int^cOO 

• MdMfo9oio 

++++T I I 



+ 1 



MMWpMt^M'^PMClrOOCOCO 

I I I T+++I T+I++I I 



• tJ-OO ^O 0\00 O ^s OVOO i/^ tJ- t^OO ts.COO 0\0 O\COih00 fOGO Tl* N 0\ CO »0 tsOO M CO 

• <^MOMc5iHT^MMdcoplMC'Jcod»HMMdwdHipJcQT}-dpJddddd 
++ I +++ I +++ I ++ 1+ +++++++++ I + 1 +++++ 



>is;n:|jl 



w d <^' 1-^ I 



oooofo ■'^coooo'OiowooinMvotscocotN.ts.cii 

cviMM •riMcjiooiHOO'-'OMdoo^-'ropcoi 

l + l 1 + 11 + 1++M++111T1 



O M tVO ■"^ M tX t^ 



O VO M 00 CD t^ o t^oo 



^in^d: 



.(VJMMMOOOO 

+ 1 I I++++ 



p0«0w000009 

++T 



f ++ I I ++ 



I I 



+ + 



N UJN lOOVTi-O^'l-OV txVO 1 



iiJlsujqoja^ 



+++++ 1 +++ I +T+ I I + +++ I 



*J*t^O\<^ OOOVO M*fOCl fOwoO (^ --^O^t^ON t^\D O 0\ 

dddM^ipMod 



9 9 M o ( 

TT++ 



[+1 1 [+ + 






n\6 codpwNMpcqiHNHd 



I l + i+ + + 



+ + + + 



vO Cv O O O^OO COOO "^\0 00 *0 co\0 in\0 0\ O CO f^ 
OO'-'MOpMOOi-tMdoOOOMCOOP 

I +++ I T+++ I + I +++++ I +r 



+ 



lOVO M M o -^ "-< o 

I I I++++I 



0\ i-i O 10 0\ O P) ■ 

+T+ I +1 r+T+++r++ r+T+++++T++ 



) 0\ M li^ t^* m 1000 >-* ^ ^ o\ Q m^ ^ r^coNNN tsvo 
OMf009*7^oooMwcJ-,j-dcoNwMTi-ddN 



+ 



M tN, o M M M ts^vo <M t^ CO (s m coco M N VO CO ts.oo CO CO covD o\ M M ts. moo CO Tj- m o t-« 

Om(^HpONd<Nd<jJ»;;^Mw(OMc5N(OMN'\ddp«dcOwMW 

++I I T+++I I 1 11 + 1 l + l I I I+TT++++I++++++I 



andSE^ 



t^ 10 t-t i-t 00 fO -^00 C0\0 0\0\OVO -^lOM o t^vo in\o 10 m 10 <s vo 0\V0 m -^ pO rj- m fo (S 
Nd>H"«t^idd"<>^!>iM^^N"Np^^NM•Hdu^d«^A.d^^d"d«d«n'-<NM vo 

I + I + II++II + II + ITIIM -^-^+++1++ I ++T+++ I g 



ssjcnsg 



VO N u^ COVO fOVO M ID 0» u"jCO 00 0\ 

0'*i^<iiM«d"M'oci«wd 
+ I ++ I ++ I + I + I I + 



N O^'^OtN.coOCl cOcococoOw^HinfvJMi-. 

I +1 I++ I +1 ++I ++++++ I 



aeSBsqig 



« ts, moo o>N.'*« movovooo i-i wtO'*0'l''*oio'* lovo N m ^N. ov ts m tvoo M t^ Ov g 

oco»7*o'-'OM<^p9woi-«o\OP4MiHtHNroMdMcJ9»HT5-pM^pJwNdt^ ^ 



0C0t-<0'-'0MPippW0l-«0\0P4MIHlHC^C0MdMcJd>H-<d-dMNPj 

+ 1 I++I + I Till I++I I I I I I I I I I T I TTi ?! 



?! irjvo t^OO 0\ o 



C^ fO "«J* mvO t^OO a» O M M CO T^ tovO t^OO C7\ o ^ N CO tJ- u->vo t^oo o^ o 



330 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 



^SUISa JBBJf) '^ 



O00nMOM/^a.wfON(iW roOO OnVO VO 



++111 l+l 1++++++++'+ Ml [ 



uia^juojiuooia "^ 



•00 woo "^w lOH COOOO O com Tt-OO tJ- tI-vo OiOfOC^ O-^ON 



11111+ I++++I I ++++T+++ 



O 1^ •*VO n Tj-NTl-NVOVOOlOMOOOOCOMM-tNOv t^OO 'I- • P) -00 



VOA 'o. 



+ 11 ' I ' ++M + 1 I+++T I 1 + I 1+T I I I I 



sj^^B^w^i^a g 



lO M 00 M "^00 O OiVO fOO'^i-'OTj-Oi Mbs. f0\O bs. 

I 1 + I+++T++I I 1+ l + l 1 I I 1 + 



sSuudg eajiv to" 



■ tN.CO OM\Oi-iOOI^'nMr}-mPl'<J-NOM«0\t^ -i-vo 00 0< 
O I <>iMOMC^-ri-mMCOfoiHiHropM(sodwco\OPlM 



I ++ I I + I + I T+ I +++ I I 



a-i^O ^- 



MMNwoiMMNvodioOMMwdfOfo-^-ciroTJ-'^ddM 

I l+l I l+l+l I T+1+I++ I I++++T 1 



umbTijusQ 



00 "^ 0\ ixOO VO M CO rooo hi m Cvi N 0\ tj- O \0 -^ \r) >-^ 00 -^ r^ t^oo 00 i 



+T+++T++I+I I ++++ 1 I+++ 



01 00 t^ r0*O fO"-i tH rofOfomo "^ "^OO \O00 t^wvo 0\ii-)0\M O\0l 



a^Ijnoa % 



l|++l + lT+l + ll++l + M+T 1++T+++ 



UOSJBQ 



:| |+++| + i l + l +I++M I I 



^vinx ^ 



. .MMlom'd-MNNVOCONOPlinNiHOOMOMMNTt-tO'^'^rl-lOMMNOM 

: : I M 1 I I + I I + I +++ l + l +1 +++ I ++ M ++ + 



Buajaii ^ 



) lO Cl P4 u-JOO *-* -^t^OVO M -^M OO f^fO ^00 woo HH ■<d-o ^ ^ txcOlOM 

I I +++ 1 + 1 +++ 1 ++iT I l + l + l 1 ++ 1 ++++ 



sjjB-j ;iBS 



++ + iT I II ++ 1 + I +++ 1 + 1 I + 1 +++ +++ 1 + ++ 



os^d la V& 



1.1 I 1++1 + 1 I++I I + I++I+++++I I 1 M++ 



3UU3X3I13 ^ 



1 I I ++T 11 + + + •+ I 1++ I + I I + 1 + + + ++ + + I 1+4* 



jjoaBiusTg: f:? 



0\rOWOCO'^Mi-(CSl/^nt-<liT<ti-HM'^MMwinf^O)OinoOfOC>)OfO'^000'Ori-(^ 

1 I +++ I 1 1 +++++ +++ 1 M + l? I I + 1 ++ ++ +++ I 



aSpOQ ^ 



+ JI++TI++ + + I I + I + 1 + 1 1 + I ++ + + + ++ 1 ++ + + 



UO^JJUBj^ 



\ooo^*nMWTtorooompONfOioioow • • .picoC7\coMNri-omTt-Pocorio 

MI+lTl + I++1+I l-'ll+l I+I++I+++I 



;jocl3A9jq5 



NNincviinNMMMONM'<^nTfc0OOMMMC^cocoir)0lMTi-Of0ro0i0ixfO^fO 

+ 1 I ++ T I I + +++ 11+ I + 1 ++ 1 ++++ +++ 1 +*++ 



assojQ vi g. 



COtHl/lwO\ClMCOOWMOfOC^'^fO-^MVOt-'\nM0100lOHiVO0)VOfO'-iO** wvo 

11 + 11 +++ +1 + I + I I + 1 I T I I + I I + 1 ++ I ++ I 



smoi -is S 



I I I++T 1+++++1 l + l I I I 1++1++ +1++11++1 



ViUTiiiy o 



::: + +| + |++l + I + I 1 1 1 +++ I ++ 1 + I ++ I ++ I 



Sanqs^ij " 



^M M Mts.01 roTj-rq m m m m m m m row r^^tnm^ mcoo^vooo-^n roO ronooP^ 

+ 1 + 1 + 1 ++ 1 I ++ 1 + I 1 I 1 +++ I ++ 1 + I + I I ++T 



XuEqiy 



1 I 1 + + + + ++ ++ I I 1 ++ +1 + 1 I I ++ 1 



•BqopjoQ o"^. 



tHO t^roO\ioiorOM fOO\0 loiowoo^ "^c^ t^O »nN 0^rt'm -"d-vO CO 0\ o t^vo CO M "^ 

T1+++++++T+ T+ 1 +T I I + I +T I ++++ I I I + 1T++ 



y-o t-^00 o^ o >-i 0) 



- 10^ txOO o\ o 



- u^vo t-^co c^ o 



J -^ to^O t^CO 0\ o 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 33 1 



^BnoxjaBq 



: O -rt O 0\ t^OO O '-' 



1 O M CO M ri ^o • ro\o t^ 1/^00 



+ TT+I I T I+++I+1++-H '+ I I I I I 



rO « O N 
++++ 



I-" 00 fOOO 00 O O\00 ^ 0\ CO^ W P) OWO t>sVO O rt-OO Tl-txN IO01 TfOl M Tftol/^O ■^MOO 



■BissBqqy 



+[+1+11+1+1+1 I++I+TT+I+I i+f 



rM IN O IH 
I l + l 



BlIU3Iy\ " 



f) n\o 10 tx <n >o Tt n\o N. Ovvo ro "S-oo o\oo O\oo •*Tt-i^p m o\o -+n Tt•c^lo^^^H tI- 
'pNMOiHp'MPMPHpopMppiHpMricocodj^iffPMropriop 

I ++++T I ++ 



r°iir°"n 



^^■BS2VJ^ 



• VO ^. 01 t^ tO^ 'i- 0\ n O VD ^3 M t^VO \0 -^OO 00 O !>) lOrOt^t^COO) inO\01 lOVOTfOO 

• P U^IOIH •^'^fO'<i-tH C^ lOTj-OI Tt--*04 PI 0) tJ-tJ-»h c*ivd ir)\0 Tt* P ri- oj to c^i p d n 

T ++++++++++++++++++ +++++++++++ ++ 



O M roOO O lO tN. h 



p^a3ip3qBSii3 ^ 



' (^ M N cj 



) t^ w ON O f^- O VO i/^OO t>*0O Tf tN. 



++T+I++I I++I + T I I + 1 + 1 I++I I i+T+i I I++ 



MOOSOJ\[ <[< 



tncovorow M p lOM m cooq Noo pnidpom t^oo r^ looo QO vo t}-\p vo lo t^oo t^ -^ p p i 0\ 
N-i--<i-MMpi-iPopMroMpMro + di-iMpMdr^NdpnpiprJMr^';i-dM m 

I ++ 1++ I ++ I ++[ + I I T+++ I I ++ f I I ++++ 1 I + 1 



ajsuBSni 



OlwvoMOi-«^wOM>HO)noi-<f^C 

I ++++ I ++ I I ++I + ■ ■■ 



1 1^00 MOO MOO mo o>p 



■r+T 



IPVO 

M !vj M M M p >;}- H 1-1 fO 1-c ; ro -i- f i 
I I ++ I I I + + + + I + + 



siHIX 



tvoo lo H ■* M ro\o p ■*oo to t^oo Mppp^^mN^^^^wTM-.«o^poo^x 

IHpMMI-tlHPPPPMMWMPl-.PWMI-lfSrO'-p'^PnpPMPNPl'-'P 



+++++ I + I + 



I I I++++ 



++ 



UEZ^NJ 



• 00 ^M ro-'t^t^ONOtM M •* 

* rj p) \A rj w N « « p Tj- 

"I ++ I + I +++ I 



rrTH 



(S M M o fCVO -^ -^ W I 

I 1++I I I++ 



I O\oo a\ Own o\o m rt-tn 
d lA o" o "H M rC -5- M vo 

I I+++I I l + i 



lEAjy IFFH j^ 



o\OtM ^ . m^N,^^tH o i^m com o\oo m p oo p -^ tj-oo r% m t^ 

purON •i-iPMMMNHpMpMp'pi-<"pp''*NprjM 

I1++ +T++I+I+I+I+ + I+++I+ 



tx-^O^P M N N 0\p rompvo -^tN lOVP CO lO tJ-OO tJ- P tJ-OO CO moo M CO 0\ to lOVO 



Sjnqiius;'EJi3 



I++I + I+++I T+l M M + l M 



p-fl-PP^POJtop^OMTfp 

+T+1+++T I l+T 



iOO t^vovooo I 



moo O vo 01 0\ 01 CO -^ 



ziSji 'f 



lOOiwoiMr^OOi 

I 1 + 1 + l + l 



m n 

I I 



4U3Jiqs^X + 



^ vo I^ M M HH 

H M H !^i l-l H 

+ 1 1 + I 



M\0 OVO OnOIVO 0\ChT|-iH Tl-pq O -^ O 



iMO^Ot-iOlMOOOlOOCOOliHiHro 

+ 1 1 l + l r+++i +++! + 



jnBUJ'Ba 



• vpvpoo >-* t-t P lOPVD rot^'^t^N 

• MPto>-od>-Mvd"P"inMvd 
1++ I + 1 I I I + I++I 



) moo o 00 00 O\\o \o a\o o^onon oonoici 

I +++++++ l + l ++ II + 



JJSltlJJJI ° 



«]^3d: 



++I++ III 



00 OMO ro f*3 M 



moi O POfOO POfOOi M o (p roO 

I + I +++++ I ++ 



I I 



tN.00 fO t^ tKx r 



• ^£) VO ro OOOO oo f-n 0) O vo 



1 + 



. " 5 P p 0) 

+ I+T I 



1 + 



111 + 



T15JSUiqOJ3^ J? 



M t^ ts p CO t>. t^VO ^ lO t^ HI Ov " N COVO t^ OMO Tl-OO ■'I- t^OO lOt^N lOOvlOPOOVO 
cipplOCOPPPpMMMP(^MO)rJ-MMMPC«(CO'^TfpiHMMCOp 

I ++ I ++++++ I i ++ I + I I +++++++T++++T 



^rr 



JIBUISJ BjaQ 



cooo ^ Tj- CO p vo vo fOOO 00 Ov t^ P 
"co + pcop'dpojMO)pP" 

I 11 + I ++ I I+++I 



OOVO lOW iH cq 0\»-< COfO-'tiriroOVOtN.NOO iriOO 

++T I + I ++++++T +++ I + I 



+ 



io\o WOO wvo m'^ooMvovo w mco^M oi nog oi o coTj-o^-^io-^i^t^m-^OMoo t^ 
wc^dMPiodd-4"Oic^ddodooMdMiHOiMdooifocoMMQO(Tf'^0'^'-i 

I I T+l l + l I I+++I + I++I 1 + 



rOMCOCOMMPNTf-^P'S-l-l 
I +++++T++++++ 



XjEijaa 



vo lO p OV lOOO *^ W P ''t w •-< 0\ I 
«co«ppNdpNPM'p"i 

++++[ I++I M T I 



W Tl-00 ts.cO MfOiotNOOtN.00 O\00 co\o o\ o m COVO 

•-^pJmnoio.. OfooJofooiddoiMPooJcoojTfOi 

I I + I I I ++ I +++ 1 I ++++++ 1 



) Tj- CO O fO O '■ 



JTidS^^ ^ 



'-' O 01 C^l PO 01 

I I++I I 



)01 01 OiOVO lO'^ONfOtN.tvM M 0\>0 \0 On 0\ O CO 0| vo 

d OMpo>7«o^;^oi"^ooro'-'Oivdoi'-<d9 



i-i CO 0\ rsi GOO 
Mmcoooooi 

I ++++++++ [++++++ I 



sai'Euag' 



00 -^p oviomoo -^woo cop m n 

PO^moJmPJ^MCOm'pm 



^ vo vo rf CO P OVOO Pl 00 cooo 0) C\ lOOO I-I -^ 



+ [++ I I + 



rl I OP-*COMMpi-iMi-iNPMMN"CO"COt>l 



jBSBsqig 



o M CO moo 01 o\ 00 HI ►-. 
oowfopowodooi 

++++++ I + I 



Tj-poovo N ovt>^; covo ■* M " 00 

P " p p c ' ' ' 

+ 111 



M- COOO CO M CO CO tH 



p o o g 0) o o 

I I+T+I+ 



fV 



+rTrirrrT+? i 



' m\0 t--*00 On O >-< M CO "^ in^O t^OO 0\ O 



CO ^ ui^D t^OO 0\ O 



01 fo "^ irtO fN^oo ON o 



^; ><'» 



332 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



;3UI3^ JBBJD °^^ 



• txoo oNfoNtvoovO"'* n\o in M CO CO \o o -a-vo c^ >o 

++ 1 +++ M + I I I T++++++ ' I T++ 



?•• 



n o\oo MOO oiommo « t^oo o\oo N \d vo " m o» 



up:)uojui30ia; to 



+ 1 + 1 +++ 1 I + 1 I ++ 1 I I ++++ ' ' ' + I I I 



V°A 



+ T+I i + U+i I I++++I + I I I I I T++ + I 



sia^B^XfBa 3 



. M COiOtN.COOVO ts.tN,0\0 COts,Tj- xJ-00 -^ CO « IH CO 

+ 1 I I++++++I + I I 1 + 1 + 1 I 1 + 



sSaudg aoiyy ^ 



3JBID °<3' 



O VD tN.VD \OCO»-t?^OCOt>*ON »nVO VOMOOOONOMTf rO^O VO 

MM I c^odoQioMNoiodMMWTfMdcid <o\d pS o d 

1+ + 1 + 1 1 ++ 1 ++ 1 I ++ r I +1T++ 



• 00 "^Ti-M MOO cot^OMnn Tf\o u^oo to roMWfOcoiotN*Tfco 
Il-.dMMVD^OOQ^OOfod■^OfO^-« I ■^Tj-OO'^'^inMoi 

++ I I 1 + 1 T++ I M + I I ' +++++ 1 I ++ 



M M M 000 Tj-tN.mc^M rfl 



hOO -^o COO\OvtN.f^M invo 



umbi|iu3Q "„' 



I++I I I i + T I ++I++ I I I + I+++++I + I 



331-moa: So' 






+ + + + + I I + I + I I ++ I + 



rrr 



I ++++ 



U0Si-E3 "^ 



1+T I l+l +11 I+++++I Mill 



■Euinj^ S 



o)toi-i«Tt- loo«too►^o^t«5^^T^m^^e«^^^\OMTl■^oNNM'J■o■*co^s.m 
III++II +1 l+l I+1I+11+++I++I +11+ 



Buapu S 



• Tl-«WOONOrOOiMcO'<d*NcoiOMnovOJir)MiN,MeocO'*MO'*MOM 

•+++T++I I 1++1 + 1 l + l I 1++1++1 ++T I 



3>I^l ;iBs 



+ 1 I 1 + 1+ +++I+++I l + l l + l I l + l I + I++IT + 



osBjia s 



o HI o o w (^ ^^o i-tot-iioiopot-ieo«OHo\c^<^(**>-iMMOOtHcowooM 

' + +++I I++I l + l l + l I I++I I II++I I I 



auu3iC3tj3 



+ 1+T11++ 1+ • I+++I l + l l + l I++I I++ + iT+ 



jjoj-BUisig ^ 



+ i + iTT+i T+ 11++++M+++1 + 1 + T I I 11++T + 



SSpOQ 



UOJJlTJBj^ « 



N t^vO Mloi-iNoiMioC^M ro\0 N00'<f'-it^wwO\Wt^C4l/^i-i t^\0 CO « •* M ^ CO -^ 

+1+T1T+++T+1 I ++++T++++I I 1++1+1 ++I+T+ 



t^ 0\ t^CO M Omi CO CO co\0 00 iO>C MMOiCOTfco • "Tl-Mi-it^ •VOONt>."t».c^coi-i 

+ I + 1 T I + 1 +T+ 1 I ++++ 1 I T • • I +++ • I +++++T I 



}jO(J3A3jqg 00 



VO 00 c^ wvo inc^MCOMMomwco-^N'^'^MO^ci'^otHcocooooO'^'-ic^r^o 
+1+1+ I +1+1+ I ++++ I ++ +11 +11 i+++l 



8SS0J3 Bl O 



0\o -^comtNO mci\o comw iom mo meot^Hi ^vo 10 co o vo covo ci tj- o ^ w t^ c^ 

+ T+ 1 I I + 1 + 1 + 1 1 ++++ 1 I +++ III II I I + ++ II 



sintyj •;s 9 



0\OSM o 0)00^0 COt^C^NO TtCOO) XOmOO ^tH PI O mTj*COCO0(VO COXOO M M tH T}*0 CO 

+ I+T+ 1 + I + I + I I++++I++ +11 l + l I I 1+++T1 



«1"^RV S 



^^sCO^^0^O Mio^M fOi-i M fON m m m ih COCOOU^rOlOCl tJ-m CI co*o VO 

+ 1 + 1+ III I+ + +I++I I I I I 1 I 1 I l + l + 1 I 



Sjnqsiiij g. 



1-NOO OMOOVO TfCON N ■*" O C^ "^OO ■>3-NMC)OMPliHiHN^t^Tl-ONO"0OO\ 

+ T+I+T+I+++I+ +1 + 1+++ +1 I I I I I I I III 



XuBqiy 



ojt-.coMOivoo\o>HMC^ThC^(Mtx o\00 -"^coort-cooocoOHiTf inoo co ■* M o -^ t^ 
IT+I+I+ +1+II++I+II +1 + IIII+I+ II 






M ■*\o \o 0\0M00\0 COM t^vo (MM00"'*OOt^c0O\>-<00qcOOi-<wO«C^C5O>'^ 

rMOoodiHC3dopwpMi-<dc^P"od9odrqo«dN'oiMpc30"0 
I1T+++I +T+T+I+IT+ +T+++ + 1111+ II 



ni invo txoo c> o M cS CO ■* "^vd t-«o6 a\ 6 
>H°2 



01 CO Tj- m\o t>sOO o^ p M 01 CO Ti- in\o t^oo 0\ o 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 333 



r^O t^(^ 0\COM fO-rfmONt^OI rj- lAOO N 



)in>o CO 'Vo 



J'EnoqSBq 



Bisscqqv 2" 
+ 



^«"3!A ^ 



l+l ' M++++1 I++I++T ' T+T 1+1+ i+T+T 



++++11 IT+T++T++TT T+III++ITII II I 



■ ■ l+l T++ 1 + 1++ 



O M p O <p-* 

I [ I I 



MBSXB^ "? 



01 m Tj- Tj- bvVO 00 ^S ro 0\ O t^ Tl-VO NMlOMO\l^'<3-01O'-'00 O\00 M c^ TJ- N o» «o t% 

■ «d"'0!^'MdN'*dtod"9-^fodrOMpd'-iio"roroMi-.cr,NMddf^ 

I ++ 1 +++++++++ I I +T++T+++ I ++ I +++ 1 T I + 



pBj3q:)aqBsjj3 



moosojy; 



I++I+1I ++++IIT+I+ 1+ I+I++ IT+++T I++ 



•\0 ■*N O MOO Ovt^tNOVO nOO 000 ^N UT^M fO fOVO O O »OVO \DVOtOP>0"in>n 

• d\fo-*'^'Ndf^r^'*!^vd^^'*d^^'>j-^NMmpJ«TJ-<rirqd'^ddco">n"<a-'« 
I I + I ++ I + + + + + I I + I ++ I II + I + 1 I + + + + I I + + 





• -fl- ■*• t^ t^^ 0\ :^M3 C^MTl-l^ni-iVOOlNO r-^O O n rO w M 00 t^VO " • VO vo tx 


XT, 


• ti 6 s>~6 no 6 n\6 n d\od tr>cs-^»od"dMi-i>Hvd<:o -r'd ddf^N"* -M-j-N 

1 T+T+T I+++++I 1 I++I+I+I+I++TT+++ I++ 


r 




•■^ovo c^foM "^ts o o eoo\0\mroM tJ-^o lo tt ro m i^ lo i/ioo -^ fo\o to ^^ co tj-oo 0\ 


,. 


.^NrOMMtviNHHMMtlJddMMwdpNd'HdNNNddddNdMMM 

+ 1 ++ 1 1 ++++++ 1 T 1 +++T++ 1 + 1 +++[++ 1 1 + 1 


n 





+ 1 + 1 + 1 1 +++++ i+T+l + i + i i + i + l i ++++ 1 +++ 


d 
1 



jBAjy IPH + 



3jnquTj3i'E>t3 



ziSji m 



N Tt\0 lOOO 00t>.CO'^O N N Tl-ino O^O O 0\V0 CO 



T T + M +++ I ++ I + I +++ I +++++ 



<0000 N 0\«0\CON t^vO N I 



I I + I ++ I +++++ I +++ I + I T I I 



\o coco o iointNts.i-1 M o\0\o\coo\o\tN.o\ i 



+1+1 I++++ I i++| y 



I I+++I I I++++I 11 + l + l I I I 



IT 



?ua:iqsBx + 



d\NoioJcdw"d> 
1+ I++ I 



■ -rf O^ wM MO\"^fON tvOt-i Tj-\0 On iH 

ipipjWMModfOMWt-tpirioNod 

++ I + ■ ■ ■ 



+ I +++ I +T++ 



inBUJEg 



■ txt^cotHiHOt-<pi cooo \o n t^oo ^ 00 CO inoo co\o Mc^ocoovoNroroi-'0\N 
'MMco'^cocot^MfO'^'^-^dcoP»Hoc^c(d(^<^od»'3P^dt-*dt>.<oco«fo 

I T I ++ 1 I +++++ 111 + 1 + 1 + 11 + 1+ I ++++++ 



3ls:in5iJi 



•00 "-"sO O 0\ • C9 00 f 



• Tj-fOfOO '-'00 t^OO' 
.irjMOMMOOO 



d o-^-^Ti-c^cd orow d ^i-" d 



111 + 



+++ 



+ I + I + 



ui>iaj y 



n-vo Tt- o Tf • \o 00 



O^Owvo row w foc^ o^o^ • 
oddddddoclwd ^ 

++ I + I +T I +T 



•'O ■*o^ • «00 



ipisuiqaaaM ^ 



uqB>i % 

XTBUISI BJ3CI + 



+ 



0\ O •H t% Tl-VD PlOOWMinTfMONMPJVOWTfCOOVOOtN. ■^OO lO Tf HI N -^ TfOO P( 
N COO*OP^ w rOw'^M tow ©Mdd'-'iHN rJ-cOnrr^CldtON Of^OTJ-Cod 

+ 111 +++ ! ++++++ I + I I I +++++++ I + I +++ I + 



O P 0\iOt^0t^l>*M m\0 iH N M 

N"t^d"Nc'>od>-'di-<dM 

I + I + I I ++T+++++ 



o m ■* o vo Own o\oo moo to fo o o> m o Tfoo ^ 

+ 1 + 1 +++ I + I ++T+ I ++ I I I 



lo^M Niot-t M o\o» lovo N o •-" »H o 'o in ONOO 'O 04 o*^ o^onOn':*-^ ri t^tnovfot^r* 

I + I + I I ++T + T++++ I + 1 + I + I I l + l ++++ I +++ I T 



AlBlPa ra 



+ 



eaJBnaa K 



jBSESqis 



•^«\OC\N»-'m00»O-^mO00P1»OmVO\OP VOVOMOOlt^^t-tmOOlCliHVO-^'^M 

MMo5wddMdNdNp5ojMdd"'r<^'"-1'"d"<^'^od"dNwddN" 

+++++++(! I I II II ++ II I+T+++++ I ++++T+1 



W M 
+ ++1 


m+rrr 


rrr+i 


-(l 


«00(>)0(«510-*ihNmmmOOm 
1 ++++++++ I++++ 1 1 


c^ 

1 + 


t^ Tj-UlOO 


t-t N\0 -^ 


CO'O 


OvOO 


n 


Tj-vo M moo CO fn fn w 


M m Tj- Tj- Tf 0\ 


Cl N 


++++ 1 T++I 


1 1 


°^f 1 I 


rr 


1 T [+T++++ 


IT 1 ++++++ 



■* O tVO M 00 >H M 0»\0 OlM TfPl O TffOTfM IH fOlOtN ir>00 Ovr)>ONVOT|-W»ONlN.P g 

T"oJd'<i-'^dn>-i>-<Mdddd'^''^"'o<^^"dddrodddoN'"Mdddd fe 
++++T++I I T++T+ l+l I 1++++1+T i+i I++++ ^ 






CI to ■* >n>0 t^OO 0^ C 



01 CO -^ LnvO l^CO C^ O •-" c^ CO -^ xn\0 t^CO Ov O 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

1916. Abbot, C. G. : Arequipa Pyrheliometry. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 
Vol. 65, No. 9. Washington, 1916. 

1917. Abbot, C. G. : The sun and the weather. The Scientific Monthly, November, 1917. 
1916. Abbot, C. G., Fowle, F. E., and Aldrich, L. B.: On the distribution of radiation 

over the sun's disk and new evidences of the solar variability. Smithsonian Mis- 
cellaneous Collections, Vol. 66, No. 5. Washington, 1916. 

1908. Abbot, C. G. and Fowle, F. E. : Radiation and Terrestrial Temperature. Annals of 
the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, II, 1908. 

1913a. Abbot, C. G. and Fowle, F. E. : The variability of the sun. Ann. of the Astroph. 
Observ. Smithson. Inst. Ill, 1913, p. 115 ff. 

1913b. Abbot, C. G. and Fowle, F. E.: Volcanoes and climate. Ann. of the Astroph. Observ. 
Smithson. Inst. Ill, 1913; and in: Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 60, No. 29. 
1913. 

1903. Angot, Alfred: On the simultaneous variations of sun spots and of terrestrial atmo- 
spheric temperatures. Monthly Weather Review, XXXI. Washington 1903. Trans- 
lated trom Anntiaire de la Societe Meteorologique de France, Juin 1903. 

1879. Archibald, E. Douglas: Barometric pressure and sunspots. Nature, XX, 1879. 

1908. Arctowski, Henryk: Recherches sur la periodicity des phenomenes meteorologiques 
a Bruxelles. Bulletin de la Societe Beige d' Astronomic, 1908. 

1908. Arctowski, H. : Notice sur les variations de longue duree des Amplitudes moyennes 
de la marche diurne de la temperature en Russie. Bull. Soc. B. d'Astron. 1908. 

igo8. Arctowski, H. : Les variations seculaires du climat de Varsovie. Bull. Soc. B. 
d'Astron. 1908. 

1909. Arctowski, H.: L'enchainement des variations climatiques. Societe Beige d'Astrono- 
mie, Bruxelles 1909. 

1910. Arctowski, H. : Variations in the distribution of atmospheric pressure in North 
America. Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, XLII, 1910. 

1910. Arctowski, H. : The yield of wheat in the United States and in Russia during the 

years 1891 to 1900. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. XLII, 1910. 
1912. Arctowski, H. : The " solar constant " and the variations of atmospheric temperature 

at Arequipa and some other stations. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. XLIV, 1912. 
1912. Arctowski, H. : Corn crops in the United States. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. 

XLIV, 1912. 
1914. Akctowski, H. : About climatic variations. The American Journal of Science, (4) 

XXXVII, 1914. 

1914. Arctowski, H. : A Study of the changes in the distribution of temperature in Europe 
and North America during the years 1900 to 1909. Annals of the New York Academy 
of Sciences, XXIV, 19 14. 

1915. Arctowski, H. : Volcanic dust veils and climatic variations. Ann. New York Ac. 
Sc. XXIV, 1915. 

1903. Arrhenius, Svante: Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik. Leipzig 1903. 

19 14. Bauer, L. A.: The local magnetic constant and its variations. Terrestrial Mag- 
netism and Atmospheric Electricity, Yol. XIX, No. 3, 1914. 

1915. Bauer, L. A.: Solar radiation and terrestrial magnetism. Terrestrial Magnetism 
and Atmospheric Electricity, Vol. XX, No. 4, 1915- 

1894a. Bigelow, Frank H. The Polar radiation from the sun and its influence in forming 
the high and low atmospheric pressures of the United States. Astronomy and Astro- 
Physics. XIII, 1894. 

1894b. Bigelow, F. H. : West Indian hurricanes and solar magnetic influence. Astron. a. 
Astro-Phys. XIII, 1894- 

1894c. Bigelow, F. H. : Inversions of temperatures in the 26.68 day solar magnetic period. 
American Journal of Science, (3) XLVIII, 1894. 

334 



NO. 4 TEMPERATUi^E VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 335 

1898. BiGELOW, F. H. : Report on solar and terrestrial magnetism in their relation to me- 
teorology. Weather Bureau Bulletin, No. 21, 1898. (We have been unable to consult 
this.) 

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336 



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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 337 

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338 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



1908. Meinardus, W. : Zu den Beziehungen zwischen den Eisverhaltnissen bei Island und 

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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 339 

1897. Rizzo, G. B.: Sulla relazione per le macchie solare e la temperatura dell' aria. Torino 
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Ann. d. Hydr. n. Mar. Meteor. XLIII, 1915. 
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Stockholm 1913. 



340 



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n 


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in 


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in 




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M 













NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 34I 

CO CO'*- CI r-nn CI cororoc) lO-O a r^^t-*- -d-ci- ocOf-"^- ^^c0co-^'0^-'^0 ci 

I I I I III III I III 

r-r-fOr^ei\oo ^t- 0\ 0\ a OasM- •- r^coci noooococooor-^co'-'Ci'^r^t-'rou-jO^ 

1010C--VO *-\r*coXi '5f\ot-^vDn'*j-rf-«d-cO'-rrhcovooor-r*iocoTj--4-r-vot^r*ONHCO^O 

gnvoco M-MO -i-'-'oooyD looao O'-'C cor-o-^ooci'-'ONcq -^coci OnO'-'C? co 
rtw«-^nc^c^\o^ «_^ T}-ci'-'cqiO'-<««\oiM'~'-'iocici«vO'-'H(i-ni 

loar-iociincocor-CTT^-^wwc^coiooNtrjvo 00"O c^vOT^u^l00o^o^■<J-o coco r- 

I 

coin'*- Tj-vo^ CO m mco coco (Ntj-m c-ncDr^^o omioioo r-co c~ od -"i- o\ t^ -j-^o " co 
■a-on loocoon "■tt-ioo lO-d-oo c^incor^mii^oo p^N'^noo cor~■.i-•d-CT^t^o^io 

■i-VO ►- - lOMCOCOlO't-COMNinr-inClfOCI O mO" " C(-i-w m ■^mm m^O^OtTCI 

III II I I I I I I I I 

•3-NTho^cDvo o ooo^o^ c? co>o " MnO" ciTi-O'o coioci o t m -t i-> \n •t m n 
i-n~ lo"!-- io«- mi-'"-" ■*0)«"y3 «-« iomoct r^ctcici p-mi-m ■* 

I II I " II I I I I II I p I I I 1 1 

com" ■*0D0n >-' cont~-Mcoomioco'-'0\co t~oo.vo ONOi-mpo^o ■»-'0"Ci a\ 
►""co'-a'-iio - ci-'^ CO ci co-ci"io atHirwcfci^o "•-■n 

VOOOr^O COc^O c^cOixTrO co'^ 0\^ in ^ KO O io-«4-0\t-< 0\ ^ O O I0i0'-'"wc0i0»>i0 

T I ' T ' I T ' TT ' T '1' ' TI ' T ' r ' r rr ■ T 'TT T I r I T 

<3\c)oo O\0"Ct covoc--i-r~vocoo>co r~i>osco\o-*t~c~cjr~i-i OOO"-" O\oco0\co 

"WWMMCO M *- Owclt-iMCO^tHCO c* 

■-im« M o^O" loor-io" '^ -*"o" o aocoM c~co'£> ■*c^n'*i-'C0O\coc~O'-i^ « 
I I "III I I J_^ I "- I I I I I ! I I I I I I I I I ■ I I 

r~ o O r^ coco invo^Tj-M n or-N ChOC^coco 01"'O C3\\00>O CJ cooiDr~covOO -^ 
wnco " "M «ci-"""CO " MCt 

cixj-M M ncoc^covomo ■>3-(Oinco^'<i-ioo cocicit^" -3->-o " "c^-a-" mmcow 

I 11 I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I I III I I I " I 

coThO\ucomo\c<ioio^ioco\o^ ioo\»o^ " moNOD a looovocoixiovo ocoTt-r- 

in^-n c« "Ov-'hcomcici o oci« o '-"M-o irT^ ^o co co co co " « ^7 „ m o ci « m 

II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I J_ I I " I 

CO 0\\D CO IOC10\>0 iOCOCO"COCOCO-l-^MCO'-' ■*nunMcOCOC» COCOhm 0'OC1CTiC~: 
- o "•-n >.Mi-.co M^^wcY) mcjmci 

MTl-xi-o^oOC) >-< -i-co" n on-n^o «>-« « r-co 0\^o "CO'^co^-^oonci con^co 
I I I I I I I I y I II II I I I I I I I I I I I I I 

vOO" r-r*uoco O cOr^O\ON'<t-'-r*M ^-sOv^w i-coONcOc^aNOVO r^vOO\civOO. 0\tI- 
W-.C* CI - wtH OlM « ^« « N 

cotHcoOvOr-M -^cicoN 01 ^ 0\-^ •■o "+'-'« cococoTt-co c^O'^'O "-ir-r^iosouoioco 

I I I ipi" ipi ipi 

covo-'J-aD coo^n -^winci On-^iovo loaD^iO'^t-'irjco tj-co-^o ci onO\" 0\iocOThc« 

vOiOC^VO C)C1\0 rt-C-vCClvO i-iCOr^TfCOlO-J-COCOCOvOVO OCld " -"I-VO^ C«r)-CT n 

I II II I I 

O in lO O CO r~co 00 ■* uo\o lOvomc-co cocicoco mco^oo « ■^^ c« O'^r^'-i " -^ 0\ ■* 

^ M-C1 M MC) ""« 

ONN'^vo r^C^cOT^cor•T^o^OC«M^ooom^0^0coooo r^c^Ovo ■<j-c^oO'-" >-' r^covo co 

C0O\C000 r^COt-" O^C3^'-C^O^C3^•-'0» O ■<J-Tj-'<3-^ht-'C0\O COIOIOIOIOCO-^C^IOUOVO-^JO 

d t> (5 ci d d " d 6^6 6 d >^ " m « ~ " " m m" « m m «' « w « « « m m" « - « 



•*>^s"-Se^>^e'""Se^>^s'""Se^>^ 



ol^ ^1^ ol^ ol^ ol^ 

0\o "^ o o "^ coo"^ coo"^ coo'^ 

TTVO 2°o ■a-O -"J-ci ■a-■^^ 



342 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

III I .' I I I 1 " I II 

xr^ yn 0\ ^ r0C>r-0N0-0 '-' r^io>or-Or-0 r'«n'^co\OcO»00\coiOi/)CO 

I " I 

cocor^ en 0\^0\0\0\0^ i-oooiioionoo ci -r^co-o -^ -rf- ^ a\iooo "-* 
'<i-r"r-0\.a>cic» « rococo ^ -mo w 0'>)0 O\cor-\o t— o^0^"<:^^o'O^-'^^co 

I I I I I I I I I I II "j" II I \ \ 

-r"a^-i-0^-^■*^-■o^o^■>J-- coovo oav-»--«-r^ooO« O\'*-i>'*mc-0Ci Ov 

f)COrOO\i-'(M-' mVOOOCOIOmOCOCI Ot^-^CO MOO O lOO'^ COCO"J-M m 

" 1 I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I "i" 7 ' T 

MM ^wMrHCr)'-l~-^lO ~M-^CT(^MlO " C«l-li-l CI -1W« 

' I ' ' ' I I I ' I I I I I ' I I I ' I I I I I ' I ' ' I I I I 

Ct N CI C1M-.-C0-C1 M C» 

r- « r- 0\ 'To ciro -s-cocivo Onco-coco T^clc^ c» r^-*inio ^ n co o 'co^ 10 r~ m 

'T''J-''''T''''T'i'!"TT''''TTTTi-T'T 

ino" cocicocn ci o-j-ct " r-r-'O-ci ■<j-ci>- o -j-t~->o ci cjcO" comiocom 
1 I I I I I II I 

« <H ^ a M I- M — i-t 

'-'^ t^ M i-i CI CO CI CO ^ lO-i-iomCI COOvOvO CO"UO'd-'*'-< ^ Th w C» Tf C^ CO 

j^ I 1 I I I I ^ 1 I ' I I I I — I 

\O0iO" -^COO r^C000\clc0O0 r^r-c^OvCO -^O^O a^TJ-MTrC^^0^C1\O 

MMMCl MM -.CO - "C5 mCJ 

voo\"' " -a-oci " ■*r~"vocot>ci -r^Mioco "Oci coo "nvo ^ ^ co m « 
|— 111 -Mi" I" - III 

r*cocococor-ioococO'^iO'0'OC^« miococo'Orf^O'Ovocor-vo a^^OTi-os 

i-'COCOCOvOtO'-i -"^-COOO - -tf'-'Cl ri-'-vOCO'H 0001"<*-\O -^OMDvO O^OwvO 

I Mil II I'J'lil I Iffl I ipi 

r-cocj cioOMt^vo loco^o a\i>ro\o^ rfiOM o f0c0'<?-0 cocsco coincf^'- 

I-hCI, -^ .-- I-. HClKH CI f-i I- 

ococo r^h-O'-i cor^iociMD a^coo coconioco ocicoci loiovo O ■^-♦■ 

vor^voco n»H>-« ''j-n-i-o^ ^r-cllOT^coc^O^T^clvOco^o i>coOsO\00*^ "^ 

»Oior-CN\OCOr-vO ln'-'O^^OCl-'C0^O Or-\0 lOr-COOOW CO-J-COONO^Or^i-* 
coiOvO -^OOCO Cht>0'-" O — r-r-co CT^Ott— OC0O^C^\O0'd-O^^-^u^\o 
»; i-,* ^ M cj J w <-* 1-^ ci d "-h' oi " w m vh' ci cJ oi oj m w -" w ci ci •-' oi ci ci ci 

c I ^ o I ^ o I ^ o I ^ 

r^o r^o r^o \o o 



Q 3 



C) 



(S 



CO 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 343 

I I I I I II I III I I I I I f 

O^^ \ri O CO 0\ cn O ■^J-0O00mcO0OC^O C0r-Th-»t-ClMiO00 m^onci O-^'O Ocoi/ico •-• 

MM'^»H(-.C1VO>-lf-<»-.Tj-<-l— Tr'-''H—'^MC)'-'-^"-'H CO — M i- CO 









lOiO" COMt^O N^OClTl-Ci MxTl-o mO\" i-i com" lOCOmiH COOOW N 'j-Or~t-' 

I Mill III! II I 1711 II"! 



71 71 1711111 7111 II?II7 



e»voo\vo Miocot— Tfino <M c~r~O\0 oooco cncoooco inojO'- OsOioN cofO-0 10 

TT' TTT?TTTTTiii'i'?TT'. TT'TT ' " " ' ""ii'T 'T ' 

C-00 VO — C^C0O>0nO"" a O^VO 10 O m coco <i-C~l/5" COC0^C~"00COmM- rf vo in 10 

\o>nr-<r)Ncooo>0 oo\c'j'>j-mcor-oovO"0 « r- r~r-o> '^ lo^ cocoooo^oo cocor-- 

♦ 0^■<}-^~lO-^0'-' -^COint-COOOmvO ■*r^vO t~C0C1'<l-Tt-nC0C0C0^C0lO-*CliOC00 
►H-M " « -^«N w p-i « 

a - \o m>-i'»-r--\ocoo^ OvO^o ci Mincoi-i mow o i>^ " ■>i-t~"T)-vo\ON»o o 

I " III I I I III I I II 



qmm 11 cowioci coc-'MM i-icoc-»inNcoo CO coco n -^ m f o « ■<j-N-o-'*n'-'cO'<f 
I III I I I I I I " I J^ 

I/5C0O0VO inO\0 ■^>/lcOt^lO\OM-r■^^Cl•^O^lOlO»OT^^O\CO■^^0 -^vomiD'-'C^aD w 
-""CO- M"C1 ""CI - - " 

0*iO'J-mcoin«oO'fl-ci - irjio^O " nvO"i-c^">o^ coco^vo lO'*"- f) -cocO" 

I I " - " I I " I II I I "^ I 

Ti-coc^'f'i-ioc* " t~comiop)iocoo c-^oo c3\vocO'*cO'*inio-i-ton'^-" •>j--^co^ 

--Tl ««ct -"C) " " " 

■♦-co "CO-CO r~m"" 00 —O'/imci-t-ifkon-iOO" On"?^ m co tJ\~ - ■♦ 

iiiyiiMiii iiipi'[ Tii'i'i.iT-L 

T^•>J■'o ■'i-voc^M-CT m-*o\cocx30covo -"j-Tfco-^-^i/jmcoco" « •<»-"r^a ■*'<f»o ■* 
--« - - "co->i-"C« " " 

Ovo^O r-OC(a\0 c^r^O C^O a\— COCO" '♦^Dt^OvO O "o^vO VO \0 CO 10 o o 
Ml COl -" " -„| -«,„„, I I . 

I I I I I I I I ^ I I I 

•"■«" ^■♦copjo a coco cfjvoo" r-"Ci>o o\-<hoiO" cocoio" cooo coocia ^r 



vq q in 

ei ci CO ci 


vo r-co r~ 
in ■♦ vo 
ci CT c) ci 


1^ C» Tf M- 

N >o m 
ci ci CO c^ 


w 00 " 

CO ci CO 




CO 


r- N in i-< 

CI CO CO CO 


cocy^io On lOChW 00 
CO ci ci ci cj ci 06 ci 


r- CO r~ in CX3 c^>o iO 
a r- c~ C> -^ r~cJ3 ■O 

^COCO CO COCOCO CO 




>>= = 


""S E 


>5^ = 


"-5 


E 


>>^E 


-==5 = >>=^' 


- = 5e>>^e 



lOO 



5 . ^ CO . IZ; CO . 

^ o 1 ^ o_l ^ 



344 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



1 


t^ 


c< 


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On 


NO 


a NO 


in 


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in 





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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 345 



'OiO'*>o •<roci>- Nu-jc-fO — •^r^iO n*M "j-MCOirjioiomM ■» ►'OO « "-imoo i/» 

"I M II I" 1,1 piy-lllll 

--to- -co -N - - C1-- CO - N---iS-J« 

fO ■*• ■* O « loco o T^— coininovco- r-vo o - -r-— vo Oior^tooOM o o>-coi/i 

|l|-|ll"l I III I '■J - III |-| 

\ocor^*0 fOvOCO r^inncoo C^^co coor^— CO -^ci-^o cocj-\o r^co-^o^ow'O ^ 

-- CO---T - M «— -— CO- — -■<J----cO>-'--T)- I-. ci 

-■>J--^-CO--*CO^O\*->OCOMvO >n^O O t^ r- C O VO m- r- \0 CO -MO O^iOMCOO 

I ' ' I I ' I I ' 

^'- con-' m « " N — w '-'-c»--'»-u-)a— -.^-i-i^t-.co 

-^OvM l^)a^-l-lO« ln^-■T^^o TfOOco £r>cio\ci\0'-''0 •- "-wco 0^a^ooocooolo■<J-o\ 

C0COC0C>>O-<nn O^C~0^C0 0»>0 CO^O-'*— O — M-mr~COr~-i— 0-(?i0>OC00 o> 

— — wioM — — in — N CI — — CO — — — CO — — ciioM — — ID- — c^•T^ 

Oin^O ioc~o>ncocOMco>o r~t— n -^vo^oo n ociO\r--\ocoio^ O o tj-coc^OiCT 

•-•---^'-•'-'CltO M"H N-ci— 1-. rr — '-t-COCH-h-^^H-P]^^ •-•'^ 

vot^oco lO'^*■'^r^co^O^OlOC^'-'0 O\r0^vo -"^cocoo «vOCi'-'vO in"-*.-" -^j-coOO »0 

■j-piiiii y^ -"ii II I " 1111-- 

no^^O r^ncoo O io»oco Ovcoo^- 00 -^O^o coc^^^^■*o^coo r->om- o c^oon c— 

- -co----«- — - -n- -co « CI !-.►.„,)■►, "-co 

Oco-^ioo- 0^t^C\-J-^ o-*— o « o^^lr>— -co\C n — mo ■^comci — lOt^oo O^ 
-|-|- ||-| -«|icoi-cO| - innci| mtt-h 

'1 J- ' I ' I I ' ' I ' I I ' I Ml' II I I 

mr~o civoooo coo^'^co lo-cico ONCocoiom-*'+coooNcyvc»>ot-co^o >o— cioo 

-M ci - --C(-M--n 

ini—n O r~t— lOCi t-r-coo "co inc~OOr~r-coc)r~ci cocoo ooo^Ot-OvOO— M 
II I I I I I I ! I I _l_ II I I I I 1 ' I I I I ' I I ' I ' I ' I ' 

r-oc« Ch \o -a-oo <X) r-o^o lOOciioc^Ovcoc^Ovco^ocoN r~ON- t^iowionvovon » 

CTd^o^ Oco- a 0-- - -010- ~t^a\io-covo CO— --VO coo>comm>ot~»» 
^1' |-| "I ----- Mil yil •j-IIMIIJ I 

inuor-r^cococ^co -j-c^ctco •*'i-Ci o -t ■*■ m m loco m co co i^co oDcocot—cocococ^oO 
>ocicoco --co o ooc« co-oo^ ■^nco- •*>0 Cf ^cor^o 'j-covo-vD -^ a 'O r» 

--i--- 'r"T' Mil "^ II ipii 

h- »-- \o O r- Q\ go' N mco— « —r-vo O -^Tf'-i-'^iO'^r^cO OMCOC000^OcocO"^O^^O 

p I I I "1 I -^ - I - " T I " ' 



1 I I I I p I p I p" I p I I I y I 1 I p p I ^77 

O >0 t— 0\ >o Tfco CO — cocor~— >-iM co-cor~-voc<\o ■4-t^'>j-cO'«-c~ tt'O r- « >© 00 <© 



mr-f»o-cococi'*coo--oo^-^coO co - oocoONr~nio-ioco>OCOco 

"'j'-'j- II fri"' TT" 

(Of— — — loio— >o onco c< -j-t<o« cooo coo-0 - loa-co -com - •*oeot~ 

u->nr~.-< -^-oc^^^cl>OC^'0^00- t~-OO^oo T(-co>or~vo r^^O'O *'?'^'i?2 SL'^i!^ 

<Or~- O coo- t^inr-rO'-TOOO r~r-CiO cor^oo q>c<-rq C3NC0qq>O^CO00 •/> 

^ro^ ^ f,^^^ pS coroco CO -^co-a- co i/SuS>o uS 4-u-)io -^ lo-^io -j- ^m«^ ir) coroco ^ 

2'? • z°'? : 2°? . 2°:? . z°? . 

„ |> o 1^ o 1^ o 1^ o 1^ 

•*• ■* -TO 



M O 



23 



346 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 7O 

— OOr-rOTT'CCO^Or-cO CO"C) ^>OC00UD OClvO '-COcO-r-^co^OPlvO 

III I I I i I I ' I ''ill 

«MCO w rcco'r^co O-co ONC^r^cor-co-^fOO O^— O O cOP)c^C)voo^-vO 

-■- ro- fj-- Cl «- Cl -kHCO-M CO -(M 

' I ' I ' ' I ! ' I ' I I I I 

O^Tr^o ccomco-rioO"«D rocor-<r)00r~O moioo 10 md-^- - O-^O r- 

^.„p^ K,„C>0 _«f) „ n MM'---CO-.">-.r-- N 

I ' 

co^co M cjovo - in 00 io«c)->j-co cocoinyDMD'-'O i-vocoim " ocoor^ 

-- rrvO«CO'---CO «M„oi^ „„cO- -OT 

Ovr^O-d-iOr^CO O OtCO" r-0^^-^^ ClTt-inr~0>-t^T)-COO(XI ioo-«-oo « 

"7 -*■!- 'j^l""! I" I II ll-iyi 

cocowco ci\oooo cr\co\o rococovo r--rj-r-oo O\cofoco a^-^coT^'-' -^- <:>■'-' "^ 

- h^po- '-'C4 Cl ," >-> ^McO'-ii-'— T^ — ^'-'TT 

^cfN-^^o o-^cONCOOvO Tfrij- Ttco oocooo Tj-r-r-oioOONc^oo ©"-coo 

I II I I ' I ' I I I I ' 

Nvoiocooi^Ot^"". u-;cor-0 t~— u-jmmtr-irj\n^^<Xi lOt-ci" O^OooO -s- 

►ji-.«r)-*- (N IN >- N ►-co- iOmCIT-mCO 

^OCO CO-*OnM OOr^inO C^^OO^^OMnC^ m^oO" " lOOO OvoOO'J-vO 

I ' I I I ' I ' 1 ' ' ' ' II I I ' 

u^a^O -^uoOvvo o m-^io^ cor-ioior-'<d-'-' « cowTt-o^'OcoioocO'^j-coo 

^-«i-.T* n_w CO >-« MMMh^wcO „CJ^--C0 

\Ocovo r-OOvO O "<tvOO cociOM '^'OCO'-'CO r^vor^'-oooico cioDcoroci 

I I I I ' I I I ' I ' ' I II ' I ' 1 I _!_ I I 

coo^lOM ■*coiO[^^iO'*m-*'-n t— cociioo 0(n^m3 r~vor~o io00\-i- 

cocoOcocoo^o^'-'vooo r^pjO"^o looor^t^ococ^, 'N^o^co cocnovo -^ 

' I ' ' I ' I M I ' I I I ' ' ' ' Ml I I I I I ' 

COr^iOiO.t^O" O "-0 " -^i-iOO OC^(N " U-, \0V0^ OOmcOflvOCO" 
CO mvo O tO0^0 c^cqcoco-3-'-<coioo -a-ncoci O\0rj-r~;»cor~ir)vomrfco 
co^Tt-ror-oiotN Tj-ir:co« mcjcoo 6-^w^ cot-tcot>\OTh'<^^T]-c)\o ci 

^ ^ « _ 1- K- - 

io-<^ioo t-'r-iN in 0\ oi o o^co^nci coowncococoioioo-^co cor^oivo *o 

'ill ' ' 1 1 I ' I ' ' ' I 

0~vO r^O^OCOOvcOOrOvO t-iovOOD C^OdvO^'+'OiOi-'aiO OM"-ior~ 
•-'-<i-.-. « MCO CIC^ 

■^0\coocoro>-' ►-^Oco^^li^oo^-'^-T^^o^^lcoooO'OLOO t-.r^r^co-O'^ — 
"►-•--cj ||-!r -,►,-01 II |OiC)i-ci I -lOOM 

I ' ' I ' ' ' 'Mil 

vOcOT)-co-a-co>o coc^c>^■<J•a^coconoD coronco con ■^ •t 0\ "~> ca rO"«iO 

-«-\OCOco cori O 01OC>l O 0-*P) OWN -a-CO^O- O\.-*00 fOClMCO in 

■^ l- coMcoiin - - I n||-coc0(MC0'-'--'Ci"fi| 

I '1 111' 1 I ' I '' I I I I I I I 11' 

lOlOCOCO Ou-JCOW OONinO OfOr-0 ClMTl-t^Tl-iO'£> lO-^COCOO 'OvOiO'O 

lll-iy- - I I «o, roc, CO 

C0^~^O^O 0O^O^CD r^irj'i-^O -00 - 000 O^OOO^ O-J-- lOCOCOCOT 

C0«0^— OCOPJ OIVOONCI CTxC^COlO^OVOCOiO-'i-r^-OO O^vO01Cl -d-^OvCOCO 
10-^0\— -d-OJCTvCO lOOvO^ — CJVO O On^hM - iOm(N COCO^OO -. COiOOtJ- 

conci cor^r*io\o'^'ioc^y3 ioiorj-ioTj-ioiotoroco'^cocicococod\(j\Crid» 
%,o'^ o_J^ o__J^ *°^o''^ 

•TCO Tj-Tj- ■^\0 ^00 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 347 

•-n'^r^coO'^r-io^Ot-co "'j-'X-Ovmnco u->0'Or~mioOror~ooor-ioioO>M>0 



I I I I ' ' I I I ' ' ' ' ' ' I ' 

>-i.,M^«n •"J-" N-^ Mh.^« ntc< (v5^--^oin"- co-i-"-i- 

vooomo cooococ-cor-o o^Cl^^>T^•locoomr) -m^, o\oa5t^(r):)'j-vo cocicom>o 
■«-mioi/5'>i-'-i I"! I" <M"Ci -ncoa">-'rO">-'(M 01 

I ' I ' ' I I I ' 

C^P0O^'^OOO O03"C0MaDO\CO i0^a\Cl r^clO^^ r-vOC10O« OnOO^COxOCOC* *- 



, I I 111 I I 

o>ooo\^ pi'*o\iofO»ovO'*'oy30N" "in CO -^-^ooo r-mcocovo c<iio-i->-< mvoo o\ 
- CO"" COO" Tj-MM ^(jjHi ^„«„c,^M„ oo--""-*"">-co 

n lO vo -^co " 'O CO coco - M CT\ a\ o ^ -irco r-ocO"i-cq OOoo^ ■*vO ■* " o n 0\ t^ 

1 -|0«cop)co-<i-MCOi "III Mcoi"-" ,ci""- 
1,1 I I I ' I I -I ' I I ' 

0"t~CO COiO'^-N r^'oiO" ->■ \n r~ 'O 00^3 m-J-->l-CO" CTiCOCf O^COOO ChOdO 0\ 
"«"'<1-" "CO ►,— TJ-" „cO_«,-,^w "CO "MCO" „C)-""CO 

000" -s-0-*O^vO00"ior^r~c0C0 Cf -tO" - a>T)-o O O0r~O r-CTtO\Oc0fO0>O 
"TrcO"C)i I" ■^"CO" "CO CI ci"i""COPicicici " c<ci" 

I I ' ' I I I I I III I I I I I I I I 

oo\Or^" r*Or^-^0"-»^>o\ocqONr-*coOvO Oinr^" coc^voi^co^j-t^co-^cor-r-r- 
c) " c^"" « - c)"Ci CO M«cO"" CO --,co"" CO 

>ooo oniovo o ■+ioio^ ur)"0 inioocoioc)"r^oooo"c»o oo>o^o -i-coco^ 

no iC0~"C0'1-COC0-»Ot1-C0|-C)-"«O i C0|"C) -.rCI-^OCO"?! 

I ' I I Mil' I I I I ' I ' I I I I I I I I I 

■^COCO irj'^cflC) OvCOcO^O Cl lOCl^ COC1"VO O\^O""C0 CO«\0 — C~C0COC0ClClO\CO 

lOc-n c>cooo CN o>co r- CO >0 c^ lO r^ CO covo " ncoovo ON" O c-t-a CO 0\vO O N 
"CO^"^ONTr^^^o■*■co■*lCl•<rc^lOC^^-r~c^"l " cococ<"|""--icio-«- 

I I I I I ! I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I ' I II I !' I I I I I I 

>0"r~cocoouor~com>ocovor^>oc0 >a-coioci iotj-^.j-coco in^ -i-ov-i-co'O cO'*r~-fl- 

oor~n n m'^n ir> *o ocio ^nvo'co■*^o "-^voya c^'ct'ci o t^coi— ci^"'«-ci -i-coo " 
lC1""co*^OT^coc^locO""c^- icO"" ' — i i """ ■ ^ -t , «c(u-)"CO 

' I I I '^ ^ ' ' ' II ' I I ' I I I I i 

■^M\o " iO0*^0\C0r^\0\0 lOOvO "\o*^r^c^ioO^ " cocovO r^vOMCOOvoio-^"^ 

Ovr-OvN T)-ioo^ i/)"ir)t-oO\r~-r~"0- " cl^o-^-•*r-^oc^r-^c^^»t-\oooc^ " 
"rt--^"a|CO— ci>OTriiO"Ci" "CO"C)i" " O" " i"l 

I I I I I I I I ' I I ' 

C0"d " mcovo -*oci\oco c0"O^ •*"coco •«-mdOvO\co->j-C) -j-ioiococo r~r-f)\o 
""C<" "n-c<" " "01 " "Ci " 

ncoioN OlO" uOr~COCO-<»-ai/5c~" lOOl0^lO00^C^ iO^Ot}-" co-i-ro'r~co r-r~-rO 

""|||'O^OCO""1/>P1C1|1 111" COlM CO " — ' CICICO" 

^ ' ' It I I I I I ' ' ' '. ' I ' I I I 

»O00 u^T^M■^^o\^0^-|l-(co -^ >- m o coiOtj-« vocOti-« cii^cj ^ '^coo ^-o^^oco- 

O^OO —lOr^coroOr^r^PlfO'-oowr^io a\-H "-OcovOvOr-coiOcocooOvO «m 

I ' I I I I ' I I I I I ' I I ' 'ill 

coNci c^iO'^con •+ a 'O n cit-coci looo " oo\'*coiO"co •* tvo co to co o on c« 

r-coo " "COr-ioiOOcO" "-to r^ciO- covOO'O " ioO-+co -"j-O^O ci ci\oci n 
■<»--*"CO|Mn"Ci-r-ncOMroc<"CicO"Ci^"co""-*" cO"Cicin- i 

' I I 

nOuifO'Or^ioco^coco i^coCn^Oco r~p-i/:io\C'ic«'*-oo>Oc^ci iO"0>o^cO^-*nO 

mMN r~cjovOco ir> c^ CI o ■<rOci m -rt~-Tt"cococo a^io-'^o osr^con m^Ouio^ 
t^r^vo "vo^oo^Trccccoc^ r>"ONCo m o^ Q\ o rr"Ci co-t^" covoqc* ^ cicin'-^ 
CO 00 d\ d^ CO CO r- CO 03 00 dv 0» Cf\ " O o' — do "' "■-■-■ " ►^ - « J, ri " CI CI cj CI cJ ct 



^>^£~-He'*>^e""-He'*>^e''"-Ss^>^e""-Se'*>^e 



ol5 ol5 ol5 ol^ 



348 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 





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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 349 

I ' 

0\ •<l-CO M COiOCO-*Or~>0'0 ON"" 0>O-*o M HlOr~COr-ON0 C0O\i-iM a 1•■+N^O 

■CO" <omoo r~t^oci o\c^-*cO'h>nt^M •>j-o\'*>oco ci^i-o^o mcoT)-o to"M r^ 

«WC| MMd OMCO MMCO Mwco i-ii-,CO">-'>hcO""i-'T"""CO 

C0O\-*O\O[~O O 0)\O-<*-O OCOCOc^COON"^ OnOM«1-mt1-\0 mTt--*-0 o>ooo\o 

1 1 'nil ' ' ''ill'' 

niocico -"too o ci\oc^O\OOsmtoOcoo\c~ooci- -fl-iovor^^ cocoiomc^coo to 
ci'*c)-«-i-Mncqci|i-.M iiM 



1 ' I I ' ' I ' II I I 'Ml 



COiOTff) COC^O miOOOCO O\0CI " O\0n\O T)-MH-<fVO r~-iOin[~O00M MlO0^0 ■* 

-<0 MCI MMCO MMCO MCO-MMCO MMCOMMMXJ- MO) 

O Th ■>!- On " 0\>0 C000O'*r~lO'+<N OvfJOC-M 0\ •* 00 CO <MC-r-0\'<*-c~O\M lOMOCO 
dCOlOCOCOlOMCOMMd ""|||^|""||| " I M^J-M 



III I I I ' ' ' I ' I I 



co<oiooscor~o\0\-*«irtM inococo^o\o\ooo mo\f)^ -r^oco -"j-ao iomcoo o\ 

M MMM CO MMOlM- CO MOmMMCO mC|M Mfl 

co>/30^coKlc^o^^ Ocoooco Mkot^r-covoo -^loon M ooi'oo -i)-ocor~ciino •* 

(SMPl CI mOIIM MC)m - |M|M l^ll M 

I I I I 1 I I I I I I 1 ' I 



III'' 'I 



nomt-r-ThO\0 mmqnm o>0\com coood "COOnmco cooo^O c^r~0Nf0O\r~fir~\0 
MM cj-MCO ►-cOMMcn MdM c^ momcj 

vOc-com c-»m'*^ c4Tt-ci ir)CO>oc— 0\NO>0'd C0"!f0-*a io-*ct n i>vo^ c~Mot^M 
' ' I ' I I 1 .' I ' ' ' I I I ' I I I ' I ' 111 

n-iOM ovoco^rtT^^~cococoo^t~•i-0 Ovcow>oo\c~vo (s r-cococor~o3\o m rj-incoN 

mmmOMNmc»m 
Tj-O>^'AiOVOC0 lOMCOS >OnmC) •>l•O^r-C10^ •^l^M o M^-*COO\iOPl>0 OOvO M 

10>>>»-OiaClMCOCONNIN I MMM I OMClMMMClMMj M|MM 

1 I I I I II II ' I I ' 1 III II ' I'll 

COCICO^ INr~'*COThlNO O CIVOCOM ■<)- COVO COOCOlOO COOlO M COCOM r-CO ■'J-CO >o 
OcOtj-moo-<j-o 0\0v >oco lOvONCO^ coc<co r^dmin^o r~'<t-0\comac) o O^oo -"i- lO 

aMMCC|.0 mm mmC|M- II „|||MM,|M |]-" 

■<i-c»-.j-0««M o\ThM-<i-o\ioi/iM M cocoiOM lo-^r-^ cococico r-cococociciTj-iO 
Omo CI Cl0^lO■*M1^M coOior-c^CTioi^p-aONONr-cop-ONfOOiOmM-ior^ci m 

I Cl|-«-|CO |M M M CJMMMI MMIMI- IMM I 

I I I I I I I I I I ' I ' I ' I ' 

oo>oo r~Mcico\o lO'^vo mM'.j-d i>vomM o co^oiOThinvo-'i-iOTj-co-i-Miomio r^ 

MCI M mcImmmmC* 

CImOvc^NOnO m r^\0 COM-Ov'^'*>nONOCOCl mm^^m MVOr^t^OOOdvOOO-^C^ON 

, C. ^ M I « I M M M M I I 1 I " " I 

\oio-y-uomcoioinc-coci o io-*'J-co^iom d t~ci>o >nr~-cc) coo^■*co^ c-mm o* 

coN>niodO»o mco *C0 COOvCOOd COCOO^OT^ CO 0m^0O> >OCO O CO O m 

MMM, iroiMd MMMCiMd ^cO'^iO'j- ^f di iinmr^^o ddi 
I 1 ' ' I ' I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I ' ' I 1 1 I I 

0« o r--\o cO"^ vO'-''<*-\ooooONio?»'-'»ooO'-'>0 

,S| d d| „djMM|M|MMM 

000 o ocoo comoo m ooo in coom Tj-oocomcoconoo dcococo co'O co n 

Mr~-*d ONdoO^O ^mti-mvoOm ocooi-od o\ThO iomoovOOO 0\0r~i->Or-r-M 
comiocomOim ■rcoinci M ON'>rcocodq\d ■j-M\or^ioq\Ot^a3oqior^cOMCod_ r» 
cod'd' n' m:imm-i-m'4-'^ch-«--^-9-4-4'4--*4--i-'^4-'i-in4--^4-tO'hth^-i-4--^ 



'-se^>^s""Se^> ^s ''-Se^>^e"'^Se^>^ 



olfe ol^ ol^ ol^ el^ 

OO "^ 0° 0° OO CO 

TfOO -TO T d ■* ■* ■^'O 

■c to lo to »o 



359 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 








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m 


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0~ 

































J 








2 










2 


o\ 
in 












2 n5 










2 5' . 






Z^ 






t! 













1 


^ 










\ ^ 











1 ^ 










^ 





























00 










OC 





























'i- 


CO 












T 










T 










-r -*■ 


















m 












>o 





















N( 


i 







NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 35 1 






n 



- - - p I V I 

oso-' COCOON u-)-j-Tj-w w O'-*'-' cococom- 

ITIIT II 71 I II 



►- vO 





CO 


CO 

1 


1 


1 




i 


0\ 

1 





1 




1 


co r- c- 
1 1 


CO 

1 


01 


" 

' T 


r 


r~ CI 
a 














CO 


•*• 


10 


r 




01 


01 


>n 0\ 

01 d -H 


M- 
« 



0) 


CO 00 


in 


1 1 


T 


CO 
1 


CO 
CO 





01 

CO 


CO 


■3- 
1 


r 


Cl 


CO 


•«■ 01 [^ 





01 

1 


^0 « 
1 1 


•^ 


COT^^O 


^ 


? 


CI 


CO 
CO 


\o 


- 


o\ 


r- 


CO 


CO ^ vO 

M « C« 





CI 


0\>0 


r~ 



loco en cooo r-o r~iot~'<i-r-MO\^ o loco c~ 

Id- I 1^ ||-C1"01-.|| 

c^ooo "■"fino "PIN in <£) ^ ^ cooioio -"j 

"O-*"i-iMM-01C»CI\O "WCO-OIOIU" 

^wr^-^C^iOCOCO'-'ClcO'-' — a^>oo r^inO^M- 

ICO -01-.-COCI-01 II- I «-| - 

' 1 I I I I I 1 I ' ' I ' I I , 

cot--" oiincoo o c-co mcoo»o o\t~-co'C 



'-•-'OscOOvOO COCI-l-vO Ovt-'iOCO— -r'0 0\r- 

II" " |cooi"| I -in 01 01 

lOinO 0C0M3c^- r-010 o^00r-r~^o >o CO c^ 



OoO'fl-oi'Ocoo r~o^- r~M-9-co>o o>ao " 

II" 171 



I I I I I M I 



0DO\— cocoon r-cOMio-^-^r-r^vo ojcionC^ 
-|«-ooi|M-«| «„M-|-| I 

I ' I I II ' I I ' I 11 I ' I ' ' 

r-r~vo o o^lncJ^cocococ~oococ)ooa^ -r-vo - 

01 -co --C1-C1 

— \Ouor-0-'OvO r-Ov— 01 uoMr-'^-r^o^ 

C^01| -Tf--O\-|01 01-M||01 

-r\Ouo>oosoim>o ciioco lOiocor-m-^coiooi 



CT\CO-^— t^OlOMDvO-'^CO'^-C^O r- — -^^cc 
cici-oiiooi|Ci|-r| -- ||"| 

i I I I 1 ' I ' ' I ' ' I ' 

t— >O01 ^n-J-O^CO - r-Ol^O lOCOiOO Ot-^COT 



cnvO'^oco n^ouoioocovo 0) cor-— Ov>o-i-- co 

COTTiCO'S-Ci-ClOl-Cl 0)|| I I- I 

' I I I I I I I ' ' ' ' I ' 

vO'^Cl 01 •^— O 10 0\»0\0 O l/50r-C1 OtiOlOO 



ovococoo3^-«-oi mc)- -^lor-oi cooooo- •* 
CO 01 - vo - 00 - r_- op - oo_ 01 - vO CO r^ CO CO - to 
00— 6 r-\dvdvd r-r-r-r-'tr)TJ-'^-^-»fuo\o lo 



'*>^e"~=e-^>^s""-Se^>^ 



o I ^ o I ^ 

00 00 

■*\0 -^ CO 



352 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



^ 6 

en t3 

O bfl 
i-i'r; 

g « 

^^ 

nj '+^ 



o ^ 

■s.a 

O 1) 





C 




n 






03 




rt 


!d 


> 


;-. 


P 



(U o 

'53 ^ 



a 3 



h '-' 

;3 o 

O o 

en en 



Q 



32 



10 in M O\oo ■♦ 



n " ir CT CO 



I I 



o o CI c^ M- o 
10 m 10 ■* a CO 



1 1 



CO lO " Ci 



« v5 



CO co>o M >n u^ 00 



" 0) CO "0 CO (5 



-J- 0\ IT) O 



CO 



« ^o ^ r^ « 

T T " 



M CO -*■ - -* w CO 

CO 0\ r- CO ^ o 



-a CO 



«-*O00N cOTh 






O M VO N M O - 

o in CO 10^ in CO 



■* CO ■'i-oo c~ CO \o M 



ininin^o-TW mio 



tt vo ^- in »o w vo 



T}-mmT)-coco cot- 







<u 

b/; 





coco 'j-O r~ 
10 c^ •- -^ 

1117 


" 
in -^ 

1 1 


« 
CO 01 

1 1 



M in o o 0) 



vo a 00 CO On O 
I CO O -jT O t- 

I , M - C) " 



a c< c- vO « 



> 



ooino\'i-'i-« •■o o 



CO On in 10 



I I 



-i- 




« 


m 




in 


Tf CO 




CTn 








C-CO 


ro 




CO 


CO 


NO 


NO 





CO 


00 





CO 


m 


r~iO 


On 


in 


in 


On 


in 


CO 


l/> 





HH 


CO 


C) 


(N 





^ 


0) 





^^ 


CI 


n 


CO 


>-• 





*- 


01 














11 

























U 


^ 


jj 


^ 


^ 


Q 


^ 


^ 


JJ 


^ 


^ 





jj 


^ 





3 


a 


C> 


o\ 


On 


On 


On 


On 


a 


c^ 


CJN 


On 


On 


On 0^ 


ON 


o> 


c^ 


ON 




a 


C) 




in NO 


NO 


in 




ct 


CO 


■<J- 


in NO 


NO 


■n 



























On 





























"^ 




CO 


•^ 


in NO 




C( 




CI 


CO 


■^ 


invo 




« 


"• 





NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATL-ANTIC 353 



u 


<u 


r 


c 








6 






,14 


•- 


t/i 


TS 

c 


^ 





a 




•a 





(— 




c 


rt 




u. 


r 





1— 


c 


t; 


<j:3 
















C 


^— ' (U 




hf) 


(U 


3 


1) 

n 


tn 


Tl 


rt 






•0 


> 

G 


tn 
C 



s 

a! 

U3 




e 


> 






^ 


1-, 

t/1 


> 

rG 







J3 




> 
















M 





u 


0\ 



§ 


<u 

J3 


'b 


-(-' 


«> 


b 


r, 





T) 






!^ 


:3 


u 


to 


l-H 






tn 







H 


<u 


-M 


> 


3 
e 


s 




bo 




Ih 








rto 






<u 





<u 


■0 


>.^ >. 


G 


C 





n 


rt 


11 


■*-* 


u 




> 


1—1 


rt 




<u 


rt 


lU 


<u 


<u 


1 


Ui 











rt 




I4 


M-l 




E 





CM 

S 



B 
7^ 




<+-l 

















3 


c 



en 

tJ2 


73 
a! 
u. 
bO 


rt 


bo 

0) 


<U 




ii 


-C 


4-* 


o<>^ 


H 


G 


!d 


ii 




U 


■t-l 


0) 

43 


■<t 


<u 





3 

tn 

-G 







It 
ba 

w 

T3 


<U'^-l 


■4-» 


!-I 


■4-1 







3 <u 


c 


V 


u 


-*-• 


CO 


<U 


c 


.2 


5b 




(U 




3 





p^ 




b/l 


S^' 









> I 







<u 1— 1 
<u!3 






^^Sis 





CO^O On 


in 


10 -^ 


c^ 


in 


CI ■- NO 


CO 


in CI On 


CI 


•- - CI 


« CO r~ 


CO 



















■ 1 




' — ' 1 
































o\ 


























"■ 


tn -j- 


r^ 


en CI 


r^ 


r^ 


CI in 


r^ 


CO in 


03 


CO CI 


in n " CI 


10 




CO CI " 


NO 


CI 


" 


NO 


CO - -. 


m 




M 




« CI 






in ■- Ov 


V3 


in CI 


03 





- ^co 


^ 


CO in 


^ 


CI in - 


r^ in NO CO 


^o 


Ov 


1 1 1 


I 




1 




1 1 1 


1 


"-* 


1 


1 1 1 


1 1 1 1 


1 



















1 










Ov 


























^ 


NO r~ 


CO 


CO in NO 


■^ 


CO - 


On 


NO CO - 





00 CI 


00 On 1- 


M 




H- KH "- 


"=^ 


CO - 


" 


NO 


- - « 






CO 




CO CI 


■^ 




NO rfCO 


NO 


CO CO 


CO 


^ 


CO ►- ^ 


CO 


" 





r- c- 


CO 03 - 01 


„ 


CO 


1 1 1 


1 


1 1 


1 


1 


1 1 1 


1 




1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 





























o\ 


























■^ 


CO On in 


« 


in 





10 


t- a " 


f~. 


03 -a- « 


Tl- 


in CO I- 


in in -^ in 


.^ 




CO CO CO 


z 


■9- N 


in 


" 


CI CO CI 


03 


CO CI 


NO 


" CO 


in -r CI 


'~" 






















, , 


__, 






•- Th in 


■* 


CO On 


CO 


in 


« r^ " 


CO 


CO CI CO 




03 Tj- t- 


in CO n On 


NO 


t^ 


1 " 1 


1 


1 1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 


[ 


1 


1 ' 


' ►-CI 







1 




1 1 




1 


1 1 


1 








1 




ON 


























^ 


c» 


03 


CO 


CI 


in 


^ w 


in 


On CO 00 





C« 0. 


n in c~ i-c 


CO 




a -. " 


V 


" 


•^ 


•^ 


N M " 


'^ 


^ ^ 


n- 






^ 




NO " -^ 





1-1 M 


^ 


CO 


VO « 


CO 


■>!■ TJ- ^ 





2 " CI 


Tf NO >0 T 


■^ 


yD 


1 




V 1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 


1 1 


1 




1 1 


1 









1 ' 




















QN 


























•^ 


1- r- CO 


k. 


TJ- 


On 


CO 


■«• in CO 


CI 


NO 00 - 


in 


in 


in CI r~ 


On 




w CO a 


■^ 


" Tt- 






>- CO 


■^ 




•<j- 




CI 






M a CO 





CI 


CJ 


CI 


CO M 


NO 


" in 


NO 


CO CO r- 


in CI c- 





lO 


1 










" 1 




" " 1 




1 


1 


























































'~' 


in CO On 


[-^ 


On NO 


On 


■* 


CO - 


•* 


10 ■* a 


M 


tC CO On 


NO NO t^ CO 


vO 




CO n " 


■^ 


CI n 


« 


CO 


a 


NO 




TT 


H « 


IT M CJ 


^ 




in - 


ON 


in Thoo 


CO 


CI •«- c^ 


in 


c^ in CO 


NO 


■«- in in 


CO On CO CO 


NO 


■* 


1 T 


1 


1 1 


1 


1 


1 1 1 


1 


1 1 1 


1 


1 1 7 


1 1 1 1 


1 





' 1 


















1 






On 


























" 


N " 00 


l-l 





i-i 


m 


Ti- t^ n 


CO 


00 in - 


f 


On r^ 


NO NO in m 


NO 




W - Th 


r^ 


" " 


in 


[^ 


« 


NO 


CO « 


NO 




CO "CI 


If 




CI CO ON 


NO 


CO Th 





t^ 


in m r- 


NO 


Tj- ij- CO 


rt- 


■* CO 


•* CI " CI 


n 


m 








'-' 












1 1 T 


1 1 1 1 


1 























1 






o\ 


























•^ 


in 


in 


m On 


in 


ON 


M- CO 


t^ 


in -H NO 


CI 


r- On C< 


CO « 03 ■*• 


0^ 




n Ti- c) 


CO 


01 CI 


M 


t^ 


Ci CO CI 


I> 


M a " 


in 




CI CI 


CI 




« -.1- 


n 


M CO 


CI 


CO 


NO CO CO 


„ 


NO 03 C- 


NO 


" CI •^ 


« in CO ir 


CO 


N 


1 1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 


1 1 


1 



































0\ 


























*"• 


M NO >o 


CO 


r- ^^ 


CO 


M 


CO ON « 


CO 


inio - 


CI 


« CO n 


n « - T^ 


NO 




^ " ^ 





M 


CO 


I> 


" CI 


■^ 


« 


CO 


CI 


CO N - 


P3 




NO t^ •>!- 
1 


-* 


" 

1 


NO 


CI 


w in m 

1 1 


1 


« 
1 1 




00 ■* « 


NO NO ^ - 


in 



o\ 


























'-' 


M On in 


in 


NO r- 


in 


CO 


* CO 03 


in 


■* -a- t^ 


in 


" c^ 03 


CO "- in c- 


CO 




in M 




CO " 




vO 


CO " 


in 





CO 


CO « 


in " - 


03 




c^ « ^ 





NO 


CO 


NO 


r^ in r- 


NO 


•«■ CO •^ 


CO 


03 ■* CI 


•-< ■«- CI « 


03 



























1 


1 


























o\ 


























'-' 


■* c^oo 


M 


00 On 


On 


NO 


NO NO CO 





NO M On 


t^ 


in « NO 


CO CO On 


CI 




ct - 


in 


« d 


M 


r- 


CI - - 


NO 


" d 


^ 




MM M 


CO 




On a 


n 


■0- 


^ 


■a- 


CI M « 





CO ■- in 


CO 


■9-no a 


Ti- r- NO 


ON 




























o\ 










1 


1 1 


1 






1 1 1 


1 


1 


ON 


1 




1 
















1 




CO 


























f-* 


- in •« 


r- 


■* 


CI 


NO 


-^ fi- 


CO 


cono in 


If 


00 il-CO 


10 n CI 


















co 


^ 


« CO 


in 


CI « 


in CI " 


■*■ 




H c- « 


■a- 


* 


CO 


NO 


03 ■«■ - 


M 


« On 


03 


C~ C~ CI 


a CO On CO 


■«■ 


CO 


? 1 


1 


CI 


1 


1 


CI 


1 


" " 






■" 




c^ 


1 




1 






1 














CO 


























•^ 


t^ r~ 


NO 


C^ CO 


M 


»-i 


NO ON 


r~ 


CI r- ■^ 


CO 


N " 03 


M a <-co 


If 




« « n 


in 


" 





Tf 


■- CI 


in 


CI •«• 


c^ 




M 


"^ 


— 


" ttnO 


NO 


On 





~z~ 


Th CI 


NO 


CO in 


03 


mio NO 


•* NO On « 





aj 7 


CO " 


« 


m TT 


CI 


TT 


c^ c^ c~ 


00 


" -. =° 


q 


CI « c^ 


CI -a- in CI 


NO 


w c 


^ Tt- 4 


•& 


CO CO 


CO 


CO 


CI ci ci 


c< 


ci ci - 


CI 


in in -i- 


in Ti- -^ -^ 


V 


S 2 












" " " 


" 


^ ^ ^ 


■" 


" " " 


M M M M 


2 


i^ 


~-s 


£ 


-=: 


= 


£ 


- r =: 


£ 


- r := 


S 


- -^ 


£ - = = 


£ 


Q « 


























J.; 




























ff 




^z 






^^ 




^2 




^2 


^2 




2 

































On 00 




On 






On n 




c^ -^ 




ON 03 


c^ 




u! 


- CO 

r~ 

- CO 




On 
- CO 






- 

- •<■ 




CO 




CI CO 

r~ 
« CO 


CI -a- 

ON 
M so 





354 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 





a 


CO 


\0 


in 


r^ 





10 


On 





CO 


CO 


NO w CO 


>o 


- CO - 


m 


-r CO 


_ 


On 


CO 


in 


6 


















1 


1 




" 




1 T 


1 






CO 


■*r 




o\ 




























1 














^ 


iD>0 


M 





10 


On 


-1- 


CO 


Cl 


CO 


CO 


r^ -i- Cl 


CO 


in r- On 


^ 


0-0 


^ 










n - 




■^ 


" 


CO 


" 







Cl 




rr 


- Cl - 


in 




■^ 














n On 


a 


Cl 


CO 


^ 


CO 


CO 


T^ 


„ 


„ 





Cl Cl Cl 


^ 


lONO 


NO 


« t- - 


CO 


NO 


03 


in 


ON 




1 




1 




1 




1 


1 








1 1 


1 


" 




1 1 


1 




CO 





o\ 




































1 


1 




"■ 


lOCO 


10 


OD 


Cl 





CO 


10 


c^ 


_J 


M 


M 


00- 





r- 0. 10 


^ 


- - CO 


in 










■" 


- 


CO 


~ 


Cl 


Cl 


lO 


" 


■^ 


~' 


c^ 


- Cl - 


in 




Cl 














, , 






























, 












CO 




Cl 


10 


CO 




Cl 


CO 


CO 


in 


'J- 


CO lO CO 


in 


CO On - 


03 


CO CO 








Cl 







1 






1 






1 








1 




- 




" Jl " 


" 


CO 





c^ 


0\ 




































1 






■^ 


Cl 


M 


CO 


UO 


UO 








^ 


10 


10 


t_( 


« xO " 


CO 


Cl 


Cl 


On ■«- 


CO 












* 


z 




CO 


CO 


r~ 




r~ 


■"■ 


On 


^ Cl 


NO 




CO 




CO 




































^__, , , 
















w On 


ir> 




NO 


Cl 


10 






t^vO 


■^ 


n On -r 


■^ 


NO c^ r^ 


NO 


03 - - 


o~ 


•i- 


Cl 


r- 














































ON 




1 




1 








1 








1 








> ,' — ' 




co 


■a- 


in 
















1 




















1 






•^ 


10 


1.^ 


NO 


CO 


CO 


Cl 


CO 


M 


CO 


Cl 


HI 


-l-NO On 


On 


w 


M 
















- CI 


10 


CO 


"* 


■^ 


"^ 


NO 


'"' 


CO 


" 


NO 


« Cl 






- 














^ r^ 


„ 


10 


r-co 


in 


CO 


« 


„ 


t^ 


Cl 


Cl -1 On 


Cl 


On r~ On 


CO 


CO CO -a- 


Cl 


0_ 


„ 


CO 


vO 


1 


1 


1 




1 


1 


1 










1 




1 




1 




ci 


Cl 
















































ON 




































1 


1 




^ 


If) r- 


w 


CO 


NO 





NO 


^ 


Cl 


Cl 


in 


CO o> 


P* 


in t-co 


r« 


On Cl NO 


f^ 










^ 




Cl 


" 


Cl 


" 


^ 


'~' 


" 




a 


Cl 


CO 




" 




" 










M M 


^ 


M 








CO 


Cl 


Cl 


CO 


_, 


„ 


CO Cl 10 


CO 


ci CO - 


^ 


- On 


CO 


CO 


00 





10 

o\ 


1 








1 








! 


1 


1 


1 1 


I 






1 




03 
















































^ 


CO CO 


CO 


f 


NO 


NO 


10 


r- 


'^ 


M 





lO 


cO'O c^ 


03 


0-0 


^ 


* Cl NO 


Cl 










" 




CO 


Cl 


Cl 


CO 


CO 


" 


^ 


Cl 


■* 


CO - 


in 


- CO CO 


r^ 




^ 










,— _, 



























, 


, 


, , 












N 10 


n 


CO 




* 


On 





r-vO 






10 U3 - 




- r^ r^ 


03 


CO in Cl 


•^ 


c^ 








-^ 


V 1 


" 


1 


~ 


" 


1 


1 




1 






± ' T 


1 


'T 1 1 


1 


•- - - 


- 


NO 


03 


r^ 





1 


1 




1 


1 


















1 




1 1 1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


o\ 




































1 


1 


1 


^ 


cam 


■!f- 


M 


03 


n 


w 


coco 


On 





0-01 


CO 


N 


a 


CO m 


CO 












CO 


co 






Cl 


CO 




"• 


Cl 


lO 


Cl M 


CO 








" 










^ 






. 








, , 












, , , 


"^^ 






















Cl 





Cl 


Cl 




Cl 


CO 


NO 


lO T^ CO 


NO 


r*\0 >0 




- Cl 


f 


03 


03 


■ r^ 


to 


J_ 


Cl 




' — ' 








1 




1 


1 


1 7 1 


1 


J_i.i. 


1 


M « Cl 




u) 


d 


CO 





















1 






1 








1 1 1 


1 




1 


1 


Ov 






































1 


1 


^ 


NC 


)M 


r^ 





M 





t~t 





1- 


^ 


03 


« 00 Cl 


M 


060 





Cl r- 


On 










a 




Cl 




" 




Cl 






Cl 


CO 




Cl 




































^^ 


^^ 






^_ 




__, 












« CO 


Cl 


CO 














vO 







in CO in 


f 


NO m in 


NO 


CO - r- 


Cl 


03 


NO 


a 


C) 




1 






1 


1 


1 


~ 




J_^ 


1 


1 1 1 


1 


1 1 1 


1 


1 " 1 


1 


ci 


- 


CO 







































1 




1 


ON 




































1 






" 


OnvO 


CO 


CO 


n 


lONO 


CO 


Tfvo 







C^ ■>)- 


M 


- >© 


r- 


0- 


^ 














Cl 


CO 




CO 


'^ 










Cl 


CO 


Cl Cl 


■^ 


Cl 


Cl 










__ 






























„_ 












« CI 


« 


a 


^ 





^ 








CO 


M 


>-< 


t^ Cl in 


> 


tT ^ On 


— 


CO -r -r 


Cl 


-1- 


Cl 


CO 
















































1 




1 










1 




1 






1 


1 








CO 















































o- 










































•^ 


ON 


CO 


« 


r^ 


M 


CO 


t-l 


-1- 


r^co 


On 


n in CO 





- -a- Cl 


r-» 


- 03 


CO 














01 


" 






CO 








Cl 






















in 10 


■»• 


„ 


CO NO 


Cl 


„ 





10 NO 


r* 


« CO " 


„ 


•I- - CO 


CO 


CO NO in 


'T 


NO 


_ 


CO 





1 


1 




1 








1 




"^ 


1 


— 












NO 


d 


























i 






















ON 










































*-" 


Th 


CO 


r- 


NO 


10 


r- 


CO 


-• 


Cl 





•t 


- -3- 


» 


CO -J-nO 


CO 


- Tf « 


r^ 












■■ 


CO 


CO 


Cl 


~ 


■^ 


CO 


" 


CO 


^ 


CO -1 


in 


CO 


■^ 


in Cl 


'~" 










m c^ 


CO 


10 


in 


„ 


_ 


Cl 





„ 





^ 


-J-nO w 


r- 


NO - CO 


CO 


- CO Cl 





■^ 


On 


M 


On 


1 1 


1 


1 




1 


1 




<■< 


^ 


^ 


"^ 


1 1 T 


1 


1 " 1 


1 


1 1 


1 


« 


CO 


r- 


On 
















1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




1 








1 


j 


1 


CO 










































■" 


•^t- NO 


a 


On 


CO 


M 


CD 


r^ 


f 


1-co 


in 


CO03 in 


NO 


in r^ to 


r~- 


CI CO 03 


03 










" - 




CO 


Cl 


*" 


^ 


10 


- 


"■ 


"* 


^ 


" ■" — 


•^ 


M - 


"^ 


■^ 


^ 










CO r~>0 





1- 


10 


CO 


10 


^ 


CO 







r^NO 


lO 


Cl -r " 


Cl 


in CO 03 


Cl 


03 


OT 


« 


CO 


1 " 


1 


^ 










1 
















1 1 







m 


ci 


ON 




































1 






CO 










































•-' 


lO 


CO 


On 


10 


Cl 


CO 





r^ 








r* 


NO * 





- n CO 


M 


On Cl •)- 


in 










c< 




n 




10 












'"' 




ro 


T^ — m 


""" 


~ CO 


m 








V, ■= 


CO NO 


10 


_ 


Cl 


loco 


„ 


10 CO 





„ 


•1- ■* On 


CO 


- CO - 


^ 


On CO r- 


NO 


in 


^ 


^ 


— 


CO NO 


On 


r^ 











q 


On 


Cl 





"- 


CO ■^ r- 


CO 


CO r^ r- 


03 


c^ nO_ 


CO 


— 


— 





■^ S 


CO CO 


CO 


CO 


'^ 


CO 


CO 


CO 


ino 


NO 


nD 


in in tn 


in 


■f ^ * 


■^ 


CO CO CO 


ro 


CO 


*r 


in 


S 2 


















"" 






" ~ " 






" 


— — " 


'^ 


" 


"^ 


^ 




— r: 


^ 


E 


^ 


^ 


^ 


E 


"^ 


^ 


^ 


E 


— — ^ 


E 


"■""r^^ 


E 


— ~~ 


E 


E 


E 


E 




"^ 








"^ 








*"• 




^^ 




'"' 




"^ 










Ja! 








































, 




ff- 






Jr'zi 






^ 


Z, 






¥f~ 




w~ 




w^~ 




^■-^ 


'V^ 


5:2 


2 








Q 


-) 

























Q 













U 


ON CI 









v}> 






C^co 






0- 




ON Cl 




On t 




ON T 


On -r 


On t- 


b. 










T 






CO 


CO 






CO -t 




ro 1- 




CO -■- 




— "T 


? T 


ro v 




— 









CO 









r^ 






On 




- 




ro 




r~ 


r- 


r- 




CI -rr 






Cl 








CO 


m 






CO CO 




CO -r 




■-0 T 




- ro 


C1 CO 


CO CO 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 355 






H-o o 

. a! i- 

C/5 



2 iJ C. 

^ <^ -4-) 

^ > V. 



gT3 rt 
« ^^ e" 

G 3 rt S 
(U ^-. ^ Qh 

IJ k ^ (11 

c p ^ 
> 3" ^ o 

(UO C 

c 
o 



o „'0 g 
^H C rt o 

Oi (U w 1) 

tn C 
<u"P rt O 

mhQ o i; 

"i; -'-' G 
(u '*"^ c rt 

"tJ o -" S 

<+H « C 

«+H Wo 

o vo-^.y 

•-I £2 t5 

>■ ^ *- ° 



n 



*vo 



' re 



s 2 



•^ m "- CI OD O 

I I I 



I 7 I 



^■J■T^c^MCl^o-■>^■>t• w -^MaaofO 0\mu-ir- to 
I I I 



OCln-MTj-Tl-cO">-i\0 CO VOCOCOC-IO -CI -5- ■* 

1711 III IJ^IIII-II I 



t1-C0"03mcOC1Om0 CO iOC0\OCIO0-l-Clt~-r 

Ml 1777 I I 7 I I I y 7 I 1 I CO 



I ■ ' I 



cqOi-i'O^^Or~NO 1/3 \ri Q\ -^ c~^ 00 O ■* CO r-~ r~ 

I Mll*fl| I llflllpll I 



■OTfCOvOiHThClCOTt-lO ^ dfOOCOO-J-Tt-n-Cl C) 

I "III 



coco»ooiocoioc^co>o in cicoOw — moco^o- « 
III I M I II I M II I I I I I 



•^OCIO^vOONr-O-r 03 ^NOiOvOIJit^co CI 
w « « I , 



TI-- inci lococi - c^ 
I ? I I -^ 



I CO ^ I— r- m CO ■fl-co o ^ 



CI "uocococi coo " 
I I I 



ooo\ ►■uo'<j-cia\ i/j 



•"j-CTCicoco CI «*■«■ -a-ociinON " 

II II 7 



cooas^o r-ci cocj mo 
I I I I 



-OiOOn ^c^iOCICO CO 



lOChin cocoMioco CI 



CO r- ci CO 



o.ooooooooo ^ oc 
-cnior~C\'-com[— 0> o " 



U 0C< •«->Oc00ci -^vOCO 



oon-fvoci-j-oooco »- 



356 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 'JO 


































lO -n-vo 


CO so so 


so 


so - 


r- ©SCO 




^ 


OS 


sO 





01 


■* 


■-< 




111"^ 






1 


















1 


0\ 


1 1 1 1 


1 1 1 


1 


1 






t 












1 




1 












1 













































r- t^ CO m 


c~ in CO Ti-so M 


CO 


M •-< M« 


- r- 


M 




C) 


in 


CO 


« 


M 


so 





1 


1 " 








1 




1 






1 






Ov 


1 


1 




1 




1 




1 






1 






" 




























00 


0) CO 


" c« m'To "'so" in 


„ 


SO in c- 


- « CO 


7 





OS 


so 


c- 


^ 


c^ 


C» 





1 1 1 


1 ' — 1 1 


I 




1 


1 











1 


1 




a\ 


1 1 1 


1 1 1 


1 




1 














1 






























































lO in CO r~ 


0_ CO [^ in ■* a '"^ 




co"^ ■* 


CO CO 




CO 


N 


so 















1 1 1 




1 




1 1 " CI 




HH 


M 


1 








1 


o\ 


1 1 1 


T' 1 " 1 "-^ 


1 




''11 




1 


1 


1 






1 


1 


^ 




1 






1 1 














































^o 


t- tSO "-" 


■^ M CT -^ C^ CO <-• 


m 


so~ M- 


f <y. 










CO 





« 


-* 


8, 


III" 


Till 17 


1 


i±T 


M CJ 
1 1 


1 






1 


1 


1 


1 


1 






1 1 






1 1 








1 




1 






\n 


NO VO 10 10 


CO in osco so m 


OS 


-*sb CO 


OS " in 


CO 


M 


■d- 


m 





CJ 




„ 





1 1 1 1 




1 


1 1 1 


1 " " 1 


1 


\ 




1 






m 




0\ 


1 1 1 1 


' 1 1 ' 1 ' " 1 


1 


I t 1 


'11' 


1 


1 




1 










" 




II 1 1 






1 i 














































'J- 


r-O 000 0^^-c^^" M- 


0\ 


N 


CO - in in so 


Th 


00 


c« 




in 




CO 







1 1 '-' 1 1 0) M 




« « M 


« n " 1 


1 


a 






1 








OS 


T ' T T 


I 1 1 1. I 1 1 


1 


1 1 1 


III' 


1 


1 




1 


1 




1 




" 


1 1 1 


1 1 1 




1 1 1 


1 1 1 




1 














w 


10 vO CO w 


" •* Os I> " 


CO 


Ti-co r~co If so 








in 


^ 


c- 


M 


CO 


^ 











1 1 


M M 






1 


1 




1 






Ov-" 


1 1 


1 




1 1 


1 


1 




1 


1 




1 






tH 










I 






~ 












CI 


"P 0) r- 


t- coco OS « OS 


OS 


C>03 


" r- 


Osco 




OS 





in 


in 















1 n « 


















OS 


k— ' 








1 












































































N 


Tj- \0 -^CO Os C^ 


in 


"co" in 


in ci * 




CO so 


m 


N 





00 


■«- 





w 


i 




1 








1 




cq 






1 


On 




1 




1 








1 




1 






1 






















1 







































t~ t- -<)- 


■^ m"^ t^ -^^ Th c^ 


CO 


« "? 


r~ M 'cT 


CO 


M 




r- 


t^ 




CO 


■■1- 

















M 






1 








o\ 








1 












1 




1 


1 










1 
















1 
































OS 


CO CO 


n CO Os t- cj in 


CO 


so ^ 


Tf - so 


c~ 


IT 




SO 


SO 


■<^ 


OS 


in 


o» 


1 


1 1 "1 


1 




N 1 




c< 






1 




1 




00 


1 


1 1 1 1 


1 


' T 


1 1 








1 


1 




1 




" 




1 




1 


1 


















CO 


so 03 


C« ^ CO 11 so 


so 


-* M 


■>i-co 00 


CO 


m 


i> 


M 





■* 


SO 


„ 


o\ 












1 


1 


1 








1 




CO 










1 


1 


1 


1 








1 
































— 




























a> *^ 






























•*cq irico 


03 CO in OS CI iH so 


»-< 


r~ w so 


OS OS c^ in 


r~ 


H- 


m 





0. 


r- 


SO 


so 


i s 1 


oocooo rococo r*r^r^oo c~" 


CO 


so so 1> 


so CO CO I> 


OS 


C?s 


ds 


CO 


'^ 


SO 


in 


in 


1 
1 


^ — ' 


= ... = = = 


5^ 


^ ' ' 


. = - » 


~ 


' 


~ 


»■ 


si 


^ 


% 


3^ 


! « 

c 










i? 


10 


\n 


CM 

CM 


CM 


w -■ CO in 


CO in [^ r- Os r- CJ\ 


05 


M CO - 


CO 00 m r~ 


in 


[^ 


OS 


c< c< N n 


CI n c* a n n 


CO CO CO 


CO CO CO 0^ 


CO 


CO 


CO 


3 = s = 


s s a > : c : 


1 


3 a » 


S » I I 


s 


. 


J. 


1 


1 


7 


1 


1 
























CM 


CO 


r>. 







M tT 


C5 -^so SO CO SO 00 


CM 


PI 


CI n Tj-so 


Thso 


23 


CO 












C< CI C» CI 


« ci n c« M ct 




CO CO CO 


CO CO 00 CO 


CO 


CO 


<o 












1 






z 












Z 










u 


•z.'z. 


•Z, 2 Z 





2 2 


2 


Z 









z 


z 


z 


z' 


5 






r>. 












on 













00 


in 












m 














e 


t-sO 


in ■«■ CO 


1 


CO 











1 





CM 


m 


CO 


m in 


m in 10 


1 


m m 


10 


in 






1 


CO 


CO 


CO 


to 








en 





























10 












10 











NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 357 

I I I I I I Till I ^ II 



Ml III I - 



III I III I I I I I I I I I I I I 



I I " - I I I I I I - 



II I I I I I I I I I I I III I I I I 



OrtOnr^OONOiO " MOvMt-OC5TfP-COOtyvr~iOCT* \0 00^O^O^■>J-C0'OC0 

II I I I IIII7IIII MM I yillliy-j* 



coMe)""0O«cicoco M o-coMcfiNcoO'-'^-'-i •>j->o " rooa3ncD^o>-i 

11 II MM iiijiriiirir 



concooo-<-*LOcomTr ■>!■ >o^ciiococoMr~-*"< ■*coov ■* too-tf-o vna3 ci »o 
I I M II ^ I II I III I 



I I I 



II II III I II I I I I II I 



I Ml. I " I 



vO •*• ■* t~ ■* r~>o m-*co lO oci'i-t~i/)C)OiomiOrt-\oo n mOmo-co-^m 

IMMMIII I 7 "M 1-2- «-«-« 



•0- o •- n ■^■03 O'O >oo ■<»• n-a-* 0\o>« cio-<»- O co ^co-«-r- «■>»■ 



M CT r-co ■*co'^0" CO ^ Tf-m ■<^lo coco -^vo co « cj -^000 

I I I 



ot^inoo'-i-r-voco o tocT'OOvcjvn^cocococi'Or^c* co o><>>oin»o>ococq 
'* \o\or--cdTO^'vd^r--co t^ <x>c->cot^r^cdo6cocoooaDoococo s:^ ccodoocz^gocococ^ 

*C 

< ^ ' = **'' ■ ^ ' = ''''« — •'' ^ ^ =..... . 

.0000000000 ^ 00000000000000 Q 00000000 

I =•----' i — = = -•--• = - <i =•-''»•.. 

^ OCItJ-VOCOOWtJ-^OCO 0«'t-'OCOOC)Tf\OCl'^vOCOCO ^- O0«W'i--«+\OCO 

:« . 

s ■ 



o o irtO ° ° o,/,oooo 

n\ CO \ 0\ 00 1^ >0 I r~^ >o -r 

CO <g 

10 m 



358 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 70 









^_ 















CO 10 r^ 


CI 


TfClOiCOOO^COCl 


CO 


r~cO 


in 


" " CI vo - a 


















1 1 II 




0\ 






1 1 








1 1 II 




























, , 












o\ 


t^O t^ 


CO 


NO CI CO UOCO M ^ w 


^ 


c^ CO * 


in 


r~co ar-TTCOCi -1- 


CI 





1 




w 1 « 








1 1 




0^ 


1 




-i 1 








1 1 




M 


















CO 


ij- 10 





■- inco locico coi/> 


CO 


t> « 


CI 


«^cicicO"Ci>-" 


CI 





\ 


1 


1 1 




1 




1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


1 


ON 




1 


1 J 




1 




1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 


1 


" 


















^ 


■^ CO CO 


C) 


CO -^ro " Tj- n n ci 





vn CO CI 


CO 


ONin-MO^'-i'-a 












II '"' i 1 "^ 


1 


1 1 1 


1 


1 III 


1 





1 




It 1 11 


1 


1 1 1 


1 


1 III 


1 


" 


1 


































\o 


'Jo" n w 


cq 


C» n NO CO On NO r^ IM 


■^^- 


o> " « 





CjN c^ CI NO n c) ci CI 


»• 





t 1 "^ 


1 








1 


( III II 


1 


o» 


J^ 1 1 


1 


1 1 




1 


1 


1 III II 


1 












1 








10 


CJi " CO 





00 0> CONO 10 CO r- M NO 


^ 


" C- CI 


in 


i> CO 0> - CI 








1 ^ 1 












I 1 


1 


0\ 


' 1 ' 


1 


1 1 ' ' ' 1 ' 1 1 


1 


T 1 


1 


1 1 


1 


M 


1 


1 


II ' ' ,1 


1 


1 








■+ 







NO coiO'-co cq COC-On 





10 CONO 


10 


« inNO in " CO CI « 


M 





w M N 




c« n « CO 1 0) - 1 ci 


CI 






III 1 II 


1 





1 1 1 


1 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


1 






III 1 II 


1 


1 


1 1 1 


t 


1 1 1 1 II 1 


1 




























en 


t~-NO 


CI 


co' n' r^ On CI NO c^ NO w 


CO 


CONO 




co-H>-'-'ooO"CO 























ON 


1 


1 


1 1 1 1 1 1 


1 


1 


1 


1 ill 




" 






: 1 1 III 


1 










« 


CO " CO 


CO 


On"C0 lOC^- CT uico 


r^ 


CI C) CI 


M 


o^incociM-coo 
















1 1 


1 


*" (II II 














1 1 


1 


III II 




« 




















CO ■<*- 


CO 


■^lOCOCO CI r--<i-NO 


lO 


CO " 


CO 


ci n " CO r~ ci CI CI 


CO 





1 








1 1 


1 


1 ^ i 




o\ 


1 








i 1 


1 


1 1 




" 





















C^NO " 


CO 


r^ON-^O 0\^-'N0 ■* 


CD 


CI CO M 





Oco incocomco co 


CO 





- C) - 




COwClM-"""-- 




1 1 


1 


1 1 1^' 1 " 1 


1 


ON 










1 1 


1 


1 1 1 1 1 1 


1 


*-* 














I 1 




On 


CO^O 


„ 


CI0C5"OO-*^0 


r^ 


" m CO 





NO cococo Thci CI com 




0\ 










1 






1 


CO 






1 1 




1 


1 


1 1 1 III 


k 


" 






1 






























00 


NO " 





10 ~t^-^ fl rf 


M 


in CO in 


NO 


r^ io>o CO CO CO 


CO 


ON 


i 1 


1 


'-' 1 








1 1 1 1 1 


1 


00 


1 1 


1 






1 




1 1 1 1 1 


1 


" 


















— 


















OJ •^ 


















t^ 


TJ-OO 


■* 


CO C7 "_ CO r;- q in Th 


r» 


in ^N0_ 


CI 


CI in r^ o_ in CO inNO_ r;- 


q 


sS 


CO t-^co' 


CO 


I~-C0' [^ d>C0' CO 0' On On 


CO 


no' NO in 


no' 


NONOvONO c^r-*r-r-'C^ 


''" 




^ ^ = 


^ 


^' = — = — — 


^ 


^ = 


3t 


^ — = — = — 


3: 


V 
bo 

c 







OOOOOOOOO 




000 


° 


OOOOOOOOO 


r* On en 


CM 


" — CO ^ COlOCOlOC^ 


CT> 
CV^ 


r~ On - 




t^ONinc-ONcoinr^ON 


Q 


c< n M 


COCOcOfTOCOCOCOCOCO 


M - C< 


^ 




05 


:B 








I 




I 




1 


J 


at; 





D Etetctae 


1 




3 I » 


I 


3 55 = = = = = = 


1 




NO CO CO 


C4 


« « -^ CI -^^o 


CO 


NO M 




Noca n-NooD CI rj-Noco 






N M M 




COCOCOcOCOCO-fOCOCO 




" " CI 












z 




2 








Z 


V 


2" 2 





22 2 2 





2 


2: 


2 2 2 









r>« 




CO 








CM 


H 





in 


000 


m 








00 


CC 


n 


CO M 


1 


CO " 


I 


CO 


CO 


CI - 


1 


10 10 


I 


ID wi in lo 


1 


NO 


(0 


NO NO NO 


1 






CM 




















10 




10 








CO 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 359 



T I I I r 1 I I 



^j^C0«iOC1W'-'0'H*O0 CO r-vOT*-io \0 »rt 



I I I I I I I 



111 II I III 



Tt-cocooON-coMci-- " " \r> r~ co 

I I rill 



II II 



II 111 



t I I 11 I I I 11 II I 



1 I I I I I 



I " I I ~ 1 I 



1 7 I I 1 I I I 



1 III 1 I 1 I I I 11 



1 I "~ I I I I 






^' =— — — - =^ 



- 0000 „ s 



— coior--fom-coiOr-a\ o. -coior^ ,^ o 

„_„„, oj cicicici f5 j^ 

o "" "00 

0«-*^On-*oci-tvocn >— oci-to cn 



2 Z 2 o Z z Z 

000 ^ o c- c 

CI — O I O O CD 

\0 O .0 I ^ to 10 



360 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



A^ 


1) 




u 


r! 


3 


Q 


a 
u 


u 


Oi 


3 


H 





<u 






12; 


0\ 






a 


a 



a! 


00 


S 




o\ 






M 


<U 




CU 1 


ON 








en 


u 








^ ^ 



c 

O J3 



<u 


c 




>> 


■^ 




e 


1-1 






rrt 




> 






<u 








ri 




<u 







(1) 






.c 






-'-' 


> 




S 



(U 

Q 




!-i 












s 


c 













(L) 





^ 




c 


Ov 


< 











<+H 


tn 


<u 


en 


J3 


Lh 

03 


4; 


Ih 







V 

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> 












q; 


c 


C 


« 






42 








.3 


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u 




<]j 


(.> 




c 


Mh 


(-1 


<i; 


-o 


1 


3 


0. 


c 



a 



n 






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H 







n TT mco r~ •<)-\o fo >o r- co 



















o> 


•«■ covs 


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CO 


r^ 


o> 


'J-'O 


M 


„ 


1 








1 


1 


IT 


1 


1 


















On 


CO 1 
1 





in 00 


o»oo 


n 


m 


- NO 

1 1 


T 


« 


















rh 


1 1 


^ 


-1 n 
1 


in H 

1 


t~ 


" 


H \0 

1 


n 

1 





















CI 


M d 


CO 

1 


1 


" 
1 





T 


CO in CO 
1 1 1 


T 



cocO'-Ocic^nrf-*t-r~c~ O 
II II I II 



ci CO 
1 


H 


T 


NO 

1 


ON 

1 


n 
T 


On 

1 


1 


CO 

1 


CI 

1 


CO 
CO 

1 


m 

1 


in 
1 1 


1 


vO 
1 


m 

1 


n 
1 


in 


On 


- 


" 


CO 

I 


CI ■* 

1 


CO in 

1 





>o 


c^ 


CO 


- 


NO 
1 


1 


CO 


in 

o' 


CO in 
1 


n " 


1 


CO 


co\o 


^ 


CO 


T 


T 


■ 


•"J- CO 

1 


"J- CI 


Cl 


1 


NO 

1 


n 

1 


1 





- 


1 


CO 


1 


1- 

1 


1 


in 

1 


t~co 
1 1 


T 


■>)- 

1 


"i" 





CO 

J 


CO 

1 


^0 " 


H 





co^o 





CO 


CO 





■a- 

1 


e^ 


w CI 





T 


eo 


CO 





NO 


1 


T 


NO 


CO 
CO 


w„ 


r^ CO 


CO 





CO 


in 


- 


'J- NO 


-<- 
■<j- 



r~ci -a-Tj-^ci a m- cono •■ co -r 











CO 


CO 


CO CO CT CO 

7111 


ei n « 
" 1 


t- 


in 





CO 










in 


1 


CO lONO *NO 

t-t 


CO 


ON NO 
1 1 


" 





CO 










r^ 


CO 


CO CO t^ NO " 

171 - 


in CO CO 


" CI 

1 1 


1 








COi-COCOCINOOdCO^-'CO O 

! I 1 I I I M 



CI 


H m 


■x- c< 

1 


" m f t- 


CI 

1 


m 
d 

1 


CO 


NO 


■a- CO CO 

1 1 


CI n- M NO 
-III 


CI 

1 


in 




00 NO 

1 1 


n NO 

1 


CO r~ M 
1 1 


in CI d in 

1 


1 


CI 

ci 

1 


o m 

1 


1 


CO r^ M 


- W d M 
1 1 


M 

1 


t-i 


1 


in CI 
1 1 


^ in " 
1 1 1 


CO r^ 10 « 

1 1 " 


- 


CO 

o' 

1 


c^ CO 
1 1 


M 

1 


M « -a-co n CO NO 
1 " 1 1 1 1 1 


>o 

1 


CO 

1 


T r 


d n 

1 1 


a r- 
1 1 1 


TJ- W ., 
' ' 1 


m 

1 


CO 

r 


\0 S 

1 


CO CI 

1 1 


c« 


CI m n M 
1 1 1 


T 


C4 

T 


NO C« 

1 


CO CI 

1 


n ■* 
1 1 


in CONO NO 
1 1 1 


« 


CO 
6 
1 


1 


CI CO 

1 1 


►, CO 

1 


■* " cs 

1 


CO 

1 


in 



1 


in NO 

1 


CO in 


CO CI 


M NO CO CO 


CO 


c^ 
d 


^ in 


ci •* 


On - n 
1 1 


t- Tf CI 

1 1 


CO 

1 


CO 




lO H 


CO C^ 


c^ r^NO 


M W " " 


CO 

in c^ 


" CO 


: " 


NO CI 


M ■* CO -J- 


CI 


4 



i-coNOi-icOTfci-*cir~inNO CO 









n 


« 


r- " M 

1 


H M ■^OnpOw r-co 
III 1 





0^ 








„ 





■* r» CONO 


On " ■<)■ c^ 

1 1 


n On m-OO 

1 1 


CO 


CO 








in 


CO 


a c~ « 

1 1 1 


in in -a- CO 


- NO " M 


n 





CO CI q CO -a- o 17 coco r~NO no co co io 
C^ c^ t^ c^cd 6 "■ ci M o' Onoo' On CJN I 



I < « 



1;!^ S E P 3 - I 



B 3 „ _ 



— -r ._ bt>^^ 

*:? 3 -- ^. ,5; /-\ . 



J '^ U.J5 :: — 3 (J ^ o <u 



NO. 4 TEAIPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 361 

T' r ' TV ' ' ' ' ' ^ T I TT 'T ' I TT' I S 



I I I I I I I 



^vOcOM-y-Ocor-vO" c< 



\0»0 -^^O CO" "^»0>0 

I I I I 



t~ \0 

1 1 


moo inchiowvo m 
1 1 1 1 -j" 


03 

T 


10 

-j- 

1 


CO ■«- - 


17 - 1 


T 


r^ 


n ^o loco CO c~ 00 •- CO 


CO 


^ 



FT 1 <^ 



III I I CO I I, V I I " I ' 

























CO 


1 






















CO 


1 




a 


1 


CO M 


« 





VO 


t^ 


r- 


CO 


CI 


COVO 


ON 


CO 




" 


NO CO 


" 


CO 


c~ ■<■ 





" 


" 


" 









CO 




1 1 






1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


NO 




1 1 


1 


1 




1 




1 


1 




1 


■<*■ 




1 





























CO 

1 
























CO 

1 






























NO 






















00 




■* 


1 


M lO 


« 


(O 


10 


m 


fO 


lO 


M 


^ 


CO 00 


CO 




M 


" <s 


■a- 


C) 


CO 


CONO 


CI 





t 


CO 






CO 




























































1 




1 








1 












•i- 




1 '■ 








1 




1 


1 


1 




r^ 

































1 






















































r- 






















in 


1 




t- 


1 


■«i- 0^ 


OvvO 





r- 





fVO 


CO 





M 


'S- 




w 


m 


« 


<s- 


10 


CO t^ 


CO CO 


CO 


in 






Cl 




I 1 


1 


1 




1 


1 


1 


1 






1 


1 


1 


1 


'T 


1 




1 


T' 


1 




1 




1 


in 

co' 

1 


en 


1 


^ 
























CO 






















CO 


-0^ 


in 


1 


m 0\\o 





m 


lO 


10 





aco 


tT 


rh 


r^ 




CO 


Cl CO 


^ 





n 


lOCO 


in 


^ 


CO 








<v 






1 1 


1 


1 


1 


! 


1 




1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


NO 


1 


"i ' 


1 


1 


1 


T' 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


CO 







1 










































































CO 


1 






















Th 


1 


a 


1 


« CO 


1 







1- 





T 


CO 

1 







CI 

1 





r> 


NO 

1 


1 T 


lO 

1 


ON 

T 


■9- 
1 


Cl VO 

1 1 





CO 

1 


in 


Cl 


1 


Cl 

m 
1 


> 


1 


•* 



























CO 

























^ 


NO 





m On 10 


Tf 


r~ 


« 


-s- 


r. 


n 


00 


C) 


NO 







NO 


On 00 


CO NO 


r~ 


c^« 


in 


CO 


•rt- 


in 


On 






■«■ 










*-• 


M 


*-* 


^ 


'-' 


^ 






M 










*^ 






•-* 


•-* 


1 


1 






t 








— 


— 


— 


— 








— 


— 






CO 

























co' 


































CO 


in lo 


m 


CI 

1 


'^ 


T 


m 
1 


10 

1 


1 


T 


" 







1 


CO 


CO 

1 


UO T)- 


c« 


1 


r- 


in u 

1 


r 


" 


T 


■i- 




°> 







CO 



c^os cocoONt^cOMTj-MCOMin m r~NO co'-com'-c^cocico ci 

II ^ " --I 1- - 



CO -^ CO f~ C °^ "" 

o CO inio CO >-( c< " c- c^No C1C-- ONom'^oco •^\d no ci o ca c^ c3 m 



CO ^ CO 

N NO M CO rfO C0"incOCOC9 -^ CI"r^C<NO0NO ^CO CO " C^ NO 






""MM I ""ll"!" 



1- II ^-jii- 7111 



° ool, lOinraog 

i> coM"Noc-"--«-oiciar~ci -_ -_ jg ONOc^ONONCiM-^inqr^i^-^ -_ °?"° 

I 06 00' CO co' cJn " Cl C^ Cl O' On CJN c5 6 i r^ CO' CO CO On "< ci CO ci " On oo' 6 o" 0\ ON 



._ s 



In ^ " P p a -^ ^" 



"a " « 

—1 — > 

24 






362 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



V V u 

3 I- (U 

O O rt 

" On I- 

<^ So 

rj OM-c 

<" o S 

G -M O 



u 



"^ > fOCJ 
l-< l-l 

o S— ""^ 

m TO" lu 

aj 1-1 ii 

/-^ a & bo 

> ° 

O Ofi U rH 

ON „ i-in 



rt 



'^>-2 



rs 



>.^ C > 
CO 'O 
>'^ ^ <U 

5 2 " 

o< O^ 



^i biO 

G 



=1 G 

-H O 

rt_Q4 .. > 

"^0.° 

G t^ tn iH 

O o "-> IJ 

■^ G '"•9 

t« - S 

o "-S 
►J ^ w 

void TO lU 

hJfJU'O bo 
n 





. ^ 





m 


\n 








t- 


■«• 








CO 


m 


01 


CO 


r- 


a 


^ 


On 


co 


•<r 


NO 


X 


00 


CO 





N 












1 


1 


01 


~ 






-" 




1 




01 


1 










1 




a 




1 






1 










1 






























*-■ 


lO 


CO 


>-( 








NO 


NO 


NO 


r- 


CO 





lO 





t^ 


in 


01 


r^ 


r^ 


* 


00 


01 


o 


NO 









« 


« 


NO 




n 




TT 


" 


n 


01 


NO 




01 


" 


m 


^ 


01 


01 


NO 


^ 


01 


" 


in 




NO 


n 


NO 








01 


On 


NO 


CO 


10 


in 


01 


r~ 


„ 


^ 


NO 


01 


OD 


in 


CO 


00 


r. 


in 


00 


On 























1 






M 










1 






Ht 


t-i 


11 






1 
















' 




























O. 


















































•^ 


00 


NO 


(N 


NO 


M 


in 


01 


00 


NO 


r-- 


M 


^ 


in 


0» CO 


r* 


w 


t^ 


CO 


M 





l-l 


01 


m 






Ht 


« 


in 


a 


0) 


01 


NO 




-' 


01 


in 


01 




01 


NO 


" 


" 


01 


in 


01 


01 


01 


NO 




■^CO 


NO 


10 


„ 


OD 


in 





„ 


Th 


r. 


CO 


^ 


On 





„ 


„ 


in 


CO 


NO 


_ 


CO 


„ 


NO 




















































CO 






1 




1 




1 


i 






1 




I 




1 








1 




1 



























































o\ 


















































'^ 





* 


ON 


CO 


NO 


00 


ca 


01 


On 


CO 00 





On 


On 





03 


xl-NO 


■d- 


•^ 


CO 


01 


t— 


01 




« 






10 








m 




" 


-* 


in 






01 


in 




-' 


" 


"*■ 




01 


~ 


in 




CO 


10 


ON 


CO 





TT 


CO 


in 


NO 


CO 


■d- 


- 


^ 


" 


>o 


01 


CO 


" 


CO 


CO 


in 


in 


^ 


01 


r^ 


1 




1 


1 






1 




] 




1 


1 






1 








1 


1 




1 




t 





































1 
















0\ 


















































•"* 


00 


« 


'i- 


■*• 


>o 


*^ 


■d- 


•d- 


>-l 


0^ 


CO 


CO 


00 


NO 


Tl- 


CO 





01 


01 


* 


On 


0) 


01 


CO 






C) 


01 


NO 




0) 


- 


in 


'01 




01 


NO 




01 




in 


01 


01 


01 


NO 




01 




in 




00 


r. 


NO 


(M 


•"i- 


in 


01 


r-^ 


CO 


„ 


00 


01 


CO 


„ 





NO 


CO 03 


On 


NO 


CO 


On 


CO 


■d- 


MD 


1 


1 




1 


1 


•^ 




1 




"-• 




1 


1 


•-' 


1 


1 


1 


'-' 




1 




1 


1 


1 















1 








1 








1 








1 

































































M 


10 


in 


CI 


01 


■^ 


•<*- 


ON 


[^ 


in 


in 








01 


CO 





in 


10 NO 


CO 


^ 


CO NO 


NO 


m 






« 


■" 


10 


01 


01 




NO 


" 


01 




in 


01 


01 


01 


NO 




01 




in 


01 


01 




NO 




■<i- 


„ 


00 








00 


y^ 


NO 


in 


„ 


„ 


CO 


CO 


'i- 


„ 


„ 


r. 


„ 


NO 


^ 


NO 


On 


c^ 


-4- 


1/3 


H. 




w 


1 


1 




>-( 




)-" 




►- 




1 




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>-< 




1 




I 















1 
















1 




























o\ 


















































M 


■<J- 





NO 








^ 


M 


CO 


CO 00 


in 


NO 


01 


On 


01 


CO 


M 





NO 


r-^ 


On 


01 


l-l 


01 






M 




lO 


n 


01 


01 


NO 


" 


« 


" 


in 


01 




01 


NO 


"■ 


01 




■^ 




01 


01 


NO 




r- 


r^ 


T^ 


r^ 


10 NO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


in 


CO 


„ 


-«- 


CO NO 


NO 


ON 


Tl- 


■d- 


01 


C^ 


01 





in 


^ 


j 


w 




1 




1 


1 


1 


1 


01 


1 


^-» 




w 


1 


1 


1 


01 


1 


M 




H* 




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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 363 

eoi-o o 1000 -"i-t^ooi-M Ovciovo^oco-i-fOooci\o r^ncooj uia.r^ci o.O'Ooo o 

Mp »-« ..|, -.-I f,p,„„| „__|„_|„„p„ 

vot~co>o n^o>0 Tj-coo^o) ococi- " loroci ooooooo r-03r~ci -ciT-r-onioco 
mOvoo cor-ONO •-■■co(3\'*" nr^cMvo roco- - O'^coco ^^coci o^>o<otr)'*ioiocooo 

t~->hCOC0 ^MiO-T'S-O'-CO^-a-r-'j-lOr . i-vONO xoO'O^ O C^CCCO CI O-'r-vo 

^OThCOrOMirjOviOLON^'-OOCOCO O\C00IOC0 incOVO -l--l-r->0 t— lO■♦O^00CO-^O in 

■^mcONco^'^coiooo^oot^^o ionr~c) loco^O'-' cor~-i-^o c^o^coo^■>rm■■J■loa^ 

T^u^c^ m OcoO\n i-ci-*-r-tOTfco r-nar-'-' r^oo c^orO'- '^ror-M- ^^o^^^co n- 
-■'-.ci \ri 01 c\ >- \o - — -^ CO'-'"-' CO — C)-^ lo-cici lo^cici tJ^c^c^c^ r- i-^ -^r 

M -^ in rt- m^ ^ O nor^O^'OCNr^'-'ONco co>ocic] cooc^O\coONrf-\o •-■ in\0"O n 
- I I I 7- I" IMIII- lllll'l' 

•^r*M CivOcOvO C OlClvO O ClcOvO ■- 0^^^O CO01-^O\O COOOONO 't-CO-l-w tJ-^^cOCO 

MMx ^M„„ lO"" CO"-" -fl-n-" ioM"N ion"-\o oioci t^--- n 
c^cocOmCOu^OT O -ij-coo M "Mcr]^ Mco^oco -^cooo O N-*"VO --«c^r^r~>-cOio 

I I I I I I I I I I I I I 

OOiO" -S-CO^n " (r)Nr~OC0C)^Ol^)C0•-'O^00 r^0O\\O OCl-*incO"0 -J-^O-M On 

"i-co-<«-m " M"" 00 CI co-ci-Hin c<"Ocinovo -"Ci 

t— ONCo-*t-~ioiom"i^o « t^cor-cj -■■!}• o\ CO coooo ci-o- c^rao oocot^m 
"-1" |"|CiO"n |||Ocooci-~i"OOcocico ■--•|-<}-cociro 

III ' I ' I I I ! ' I I I I I ' I I I I I I I ' I I I I 

O\C)03 0\0"C« COiOC--Ci iO^OCOOnCO t-t^ONCOvO-l-t^t^Clt^" OOO"" OvOCOOnOO 
i-.C»i-<>-cMCO " " Cl"Cl""C0"i-iCO N 

c-CO" M CJOCOO "r^h-. M "co" OiO\OOD»Or^^O 0^"0^c^^0O-1-0^lO\0-^r•^0lOC^ m 
"C1|mCI" ■-CjC1|"CI""|"C) -CI 111-- CI; i -" 

'ill ^1 I I ' ' 1 

C^ O OD lO COCO m^OvO-'t- — Or^Cl O^OOncOCO n— vO CnvOOvO CI c0a^u0r^00\O0 M- 
M«CO - Md -Om — i-i-CO - "M 

movcoO\ci>oci M Oido ir)0"r-coo^t— CO •4-o^r--r~cocomr----co r-cio^rco 

"I \ I I 'j'y'j'lllfll ■J-JI-^"! I"l 

CO"^Qv"COiOO>«sOlOThmoO\0^0 lOO^OvO '-' iOOnOO CI IOCI(^MDCOCOO^O OCO-^c^ 
« (S " - d Cf ph-CI"" 

CO"-*" loiooo loi^o-i-ci loiri" ■*r)-"mo>oos-^" ocoio^o ttoco'O ciO"CO 

II I fill II fl'l ll-p ""I Ipl-" 

coO\^oooiocio\>o mcocO"COcoco-5-\ocicO" ■*ciiO"COcoci ooco"- o»j3cio\r~ 

" N "-C1 ""-co ^ „ ^ n -Cl"0 

t^"COCO "a\" " ClvOiOO C0CliOr'^OCIC0u0^"'^r^O^tOiO0'O-^iO'*CI"C000 
""II" ,C)"|"""||CI" ---iii-i-i- O" I 

I I ' ' I ' I I ' 1 I I ' ' I I II ' ' ' I ' I ' II ' 

vOO'-' r^r^inoo cor^ONON-^'-'r^ci --^vOiom t-coocor^Oco 'i-r^OQ^civOOvCv-^ 

liDiOioON-^vOO ■"d-O'^iO-^-oomiocO'-'rO'j-vOOc) oO"-r-u->>- i-co- i-Oni-w a 

I I ' I I 

C0\O'1-C0 COC^CI r^CllOCI On-^uO^O iOC0-u^-1-"U0C0 -1-CO-J-O CI a\0" Oinco^j-Cl 
— — n — — — .^ci— CI " 

Or~iO" Oio^o O n^ovoco >ocO" « omco — -i-onco ">£)■* "O co \Ococo "locoo 

-""N-. "|C*" ^|„--. -I II I I 

0\ lO in 0\ CO t-CD CO COiOO Tj-vOlOt^CO COOCOOO "CO-i-CO — -t\0 " O-^r-" "-"fON"*- 
" -— « " -CI w-O 

-«j-ior^iovO"r^ci mr^o^O cicico ^"Oco- •«r^^co r-coci -i-"voiooDvO-i-ci co 
<> On dv d> c5n d cJ 6 o\ 6^ 6\ 6^ 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 do- d d d d d do- o d o d d 

2." 2_ Zn 2;c) Zc?. 

ol^ o!^ ol^ ol> ol^ 

0»° Oo'^ 00° coo coo 

/•>!f^ ttoo -to -j-ci ^-r 



364 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

•-I MCOl"- r-aw"" mm-.-.O" ",I7 

' I ' I 111 I I I I I ' I 

r-uiov" MO>r~r-o>-'0 >- ioinuiir)Oc--0 r-wci-<i-r~vOcouiO\Ci><ima 
i-w-o-i-iM>HTfMnoiiO"'-ie)>n«"«-<i-">-ii-'t^ ►,«■- n 

•*«ioco ij-inioN Mio^ o\"r~'*moo>oao\c~'0 o "co" ocoo^oeo 

MHMir5"i-i"-*MOM\0'-i"'"-^ClNCiV0i-' -owi-i«cO">-ii-i'* 

OvO" Ovoiovo cocowO) CI Or-ioc9 i-iwr~o\*<om->)-i>oio2 cion ;*■ 
M«cO"'-'i-i-«--isi-imMHHi'^"iM"-* " CI " ci->-i"n 

"uncot^CTNOsa "t— ion O'o-^ci r^^foco "■♦coo n '-' -^ ^ ci"co-* 

Oi |0 "CI MwCt M " ""|"IIII7 

0"<» 0^0^0^'-' ChcOvO" O C^Ot-C^ClC^C^^O>OC^C^•*^OC^C^O co^co r~ 

a01"ir) MClTfi-<MC110>-C)ClinOC«Cl^ C<i-.h ctj^mmtt 

r-Ti-ioo c-fc.OT'-' oi^Ti--d-cocoa3 co^cooo " -a-mo -j-Nin-^n^t^r-io 

M 11 I I p I " I I II p 1 I II I I I I I 

C^VOw lO'-'-^N lO'-C^lOO'OOO 0^^-^>O>-l mvOOO C^OOOnCI w lOrhr-OO 

I ' I ' ' I ' ' I III I ' I 

oc~r-"!^Ot--c^ o\vocavo ocor~r-«cicO"0 0\'>j-moo com'-m 101— o^os 

CI M ^ JH M M CO M — MUO l-^l-l■^)-PlCll-l"^ M M"" O MnO 

MOOOOOO u->iO0\-*'-''J--^O\C0COm" 00\OnOO O'l-'+CD CiTj-oOCO Tj-OOM CO 

' I ' ' I I ' I ' ' I ' I I ' I I ' ' ' 1 I I I I ' ' I I I 

0\« c~Pi mo\t~'-ooo\0\vo'Ooo\o o Ocoo coiomo O lou^mlOC^c-•m-• 
a N o OMMMco wc) " CT 

COOMCO O'*" COOOCJvOO r^Omc^ OiTfCOOOOOr^CO OOO M ulO\'+0 
CfCO "CO M "CO "II CI" ►,w„0|M l""l|COl| 

II I I M I ' ' I I I 1 I I I ' I ' ' 

CO O l/J CO COOO O r^^OOM-O C-O" t^CiO'S-^O t>OvClCO "UOCOChClvOiOCO 

"M MHd "CI"" "Ci " 

c^ c^(0 CO 0\^ " o ncocon cot— c^" coco coco ovO" ioon-<*-vo ■<i- oco ci 

" I I 1^ " I I -^ I I 'j' I I " I - -j' 

a ««« a ■-■ '-' -^ -^ 

„| "Ci I ||-„, |_„„„| I ^1"" 

OOlOlO-^COO r*CO0G\N<X)C7N0. r-C— CiChOO -rt 0\0 C^ ■♦"•♦ O^^OOOCI \o 

M """CJ „n„CO " " "« 

" m\o ovocit— " coa\-*^co"0\o locoior-co-^ovo o -^o- cociiow 10 
l„MMco "I " cia"|.""-| |-n"Tr| " 

I 11' I ! ' ' ' ' I ' I 

C- coco 0000r-'*O\C0C0-«-iO^»Oa\ m lOCO co 'O •*^0 vO VO CO c- vO 0\^ -^ ON 

cot-ONCocO'O^ ■*!—" n O\to o >oaci" "^ot-io^o in-<j-ci co -s-oo 00 " 

MM "!«., M" m|C1"iOm ""O ""-OC1>0- ci 

'1 ■ ' I ' I I I 111 

t-coci ncD"r»M3 locovo O\r-co\o\o tj-uti" o cocO"J-0 cooco coioci-i-- 

"O - " ""Cl"« " " 

O CO O Ov t~ Ti-cO O 10CX3 ThClClvO^vOOir)^ ■<^^0 CIO">0-J-" "UO 

" " COC0|"| ClCf|"«|| "" I" " 

I ' I ' I I ' I ' ' 1 ' I 

VOC-inCO CI"" 'J-a-l-O^ r-NiOThcOCl(J\'i-"\OCO lOC~COO\OiOO" " 

" M H ►. C) " 

ciocor^ci^oqoo uiTt-oo "_ C3Nt— coco "ir)coin-*\or;-t^oq>oo_ cococo_\q ci 
o " " o' "do o o" " " "' 666 6 " " n " o" o" d d d "' cI - J o' - "' 

2m. 2o. 2co. Zco 

° o' ^ ° J ^ ° J^ °^o' ^ 

r~o r-o 00 vo ° 

■fl-O tOD T)-0 *0 

c< n CO 00 



S 2 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 365 

I ' I I ' I I I ' ' '11 ' ' III ' I ' 

"I I" f-l-l |-''"l "j*!!"- 

«"" ^ei,H« ^ijjMf,, u^l-cl-.^- ircii-- \n -^ -' roPi-- «->••-•-. cO"-'- oo 
cl"-o lomoooo^O CO'-O or~vOr~r--.D"-. 0\-cir--r^m~C) •- «tfOiou-)\on- N 

0^'-'•♦■<*•O^OCOM rhOsvO O\0\"r-r-"r^0<X)C0ClC0r0»0\0iOr~\0^0CTv-- •)■ - O ft 
tOT^coo^ coio>-< ^ o^^T^\o r^ONCNr^'-'C*tv")cncoa3'rur)fOco-'CO ovoco *t-ctC*iO'* 

"M I"" "M i"i "I i-^f"ii "^: I I 

lO-n-r^^O lOiocococ- O\00 M- co r~vO \o MD fo O CO 01 coco co-r-coco r^-co- oococo 
MMn -3--"C) lon-wvo MM-, -q---- ^„M_ rrw-M ^ MM commm ro 

M-q-ior^r^r^r^r^ciococ^MTj-M lOTO^r^^^■^cococ^ M\ofooNoci\o^o ooco-«^o 

ll'j'lllllf' l-liril- i:"'pii'--| I'j'^i'j' -I 

■^mr~vO MMvooD cOiOiOM-^Ot^ON^OTfOr-r-ror^M-riOO 0\t^vO o r~-0"3-- 

MMM'<a-OMM.^C)Mpivo~M "Tm mcom MCOCImCIO m CO M CI 

OOr^M fOCO-^M CloOCOOOCO Miococ* T^C7^'7^■^Ma\cO^D cO(?\r^Ci\OOCl c^^oaD^^^^ 

OlIMMMMMCO M MMmCO. MM 01mC||MM C<0|mO0 1 

I ' ' - I I I I ' I I ' I I ' 

lOcO'-' •<:j-r*r^'-' lOdoiO^vO-d-oi (N T1--.CI r-o-1 — ' LOr^LO\Oco cOvOCvCO i-0« ro 

r^vOO I-" (Nr^oo r^— n-r*coroioco r-uor-iO'^-rO>iOr-\OiOO uococoo O r*m\0 >- 
lH|MK-T^cl'-*c^"-(^i| ^vo-^ojco-h-^-mnOij o-'im-vooo-htj-.-. « 

I I I I II I II ' I I I I I I I I I I ' I I ' I I I I I I I 

t-CO^ M r~cOCJ\0^0MM « C^^lO0 COCOCO ■+C—IOM cOCOvOr~MCOCOCO-3--fl-vOiOiO 

O MMMMCO OmO mm a M M 

■^Om t-~CJ^OO O^COC^O iO0C0»O PlCO^-^COvO^O CI mMCI r-M.«-.o O 0r--»-O 
cici|M I (mm.mO) cOrcOMiM iTrMvociMM icOmttomci 

I I ' I ' I I ' I I ' I I '. I ' I I I I I ' I I I I I I 

■>^O^T^t— irjMioM Tj-coior^coco>o>o -^-r^vO r--coM'>i--rcicococo»ocOLO-*OiOcoo 

mmM m m mmC) m - M 

cocjr^iOMvO'OO lOCTN-^M-r^MO -rrcor^O c^idc^m rfMOci^O t^clM q -j-voioio 

MM| iiOmOmIM |M mC4m M C)Mm « iClClMM 

I I I I I I I I I I I I 

>oincoo3 Ovco^ cO'^r-co 0\\Ocoti-co>oooco C) c^coo loi-ino civoncomcocoi^co 

M a M M Cl M Cl M PI m m 

■^oo inojMcoco c^cio o incoci iomvo-^oocooco ocllOM^o^^c] cocor^ci o 

MMlCiC«MMIlClM~COC)Cl|- m(Om-CJ MMOImCIIiM-, 

i I ' ' ' I I ' I II I ' ' 

mcoos^o ir> 0\ o ■*iococ^>n^'*r^r^ci-^i>iomio-g--i-ocOT'0 -^'OmiOMCico " 

mmmCOm 01 mW mmPI m m m 

mOc^vO Ovr^M Tt-OIOlcO-t-OlifMCO 0l0-^-^0C0f0r^r~C00Ov0 0lr~rOOC0iO0 

|mO)MM| |MCOCO0)0)|CO|~CJmm mOI CI- mOI|M|M _ 

I ' i ' ' I I ' ' 

COOOO ^ O en O^ \0 C00t^'OO\ «C0 r-COCO Ol -1--C00 Cir-MD C^-T-'OOi-COOOO 1- 

II I I II ' ' , ' I I I I I I ' I 1 I 

■^'<^\0 -^^oiNTj-r) in-^ococoocoo Tr-^o0"-0'^miococo— a -rr^-r^n r^T^O -^ 
i-Ot^vOOOr^vO'-iOMCJCO C^0C)ncivOr-C00C0a\r-— \OCi o co-io 

i 1 ' I ' I I ' I I ' ' I ' I I 

H-c(-< •'^•^cocoo cicoco rovOO-^ r-NHtjMD a^'rc^to- corom- cooo roOcjM tt 

ONOOCO\00\u'j"*0>0'i-'^'-TrC>rOCOODcO ONr-roci O •-COO O Wr-roO rooico c^ 
O p) ci --^ « o — " -^ o — oi — ci o — — 6 - oi - -00 '- o -' cj -i' 00 o (N rj — ' cn n « 



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366 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 

I I I I I I'll I ' ' I I ' I ' 

coN^O^ysiocO'^J-r-coo o ocor-p-nvoco'-' ci>0" OvO\00\co -^i-cioo -* 
cii-.Tr«""->j-Mi-ico" c) " a co-"M CO 

Mi-el M ovot^^o o\^ M H co^o cq n "00O\w n-oa>o u-)coioO\t*-co-«-w 

I ' I '''ill' ' I ' ' 

o^ n CO 0\ r^ coco co-cooo o r^m-^j-vo 0)*<rc-*co lovo ir» co 10 O 10 o in cooo \o 

vo<>m'*^cimwvoi^aD coococo\oo\'a-\o cociPio ■*"0" c« m m ^ n- 
«>-coci| oimcjcici|i |Ci«M|C>"w>-,Tt-Trcon««M 

coi-i>OQ\-*cocoir)cocoo " t— -o o MiOM r^csui-*" OO" cjom-o CO 

Mt-twCOHMi-t'3- mhicOmmh-itJ- mmwihcO t-<»^CO 

c«cit--t-\ocooo>o cjnvo T(-coooo n -;hO« u-, co-*coy3 i-ir~i^iocoinvo o\ 
|CicO|--.| McocO||M||««ci Mil "'j'I'j-lll 

incaovPi c^o^~c^■*aJ-■*c^ co"" locomci o coMDcon OvOin-^r-mco o 
cao>"-< CI 0>-i>->co c^MCO-^i-c^oooo lococo >-■ loc^r^O or-^o o nc^co o 

MM Cli COWIWO — I-I" |M|M|CO"-<l-|Cir) I 

I ' I ' I ' ' I ' I I ' ' 

r~00 t^COPlO O tJ-iocON vOThO 0\C-OCOO lOCO N mvOVO^CO Tl-Or-« 

WMMCO>-ll-lCimi-. MCOl-lt-ClTl- M 01 MMM mi-MW-^ 

covo^oco lo^cq Ti-CTioco^ r~cio co-^O^o -"d-Chr-c^cicor^cococociioo 

ICOCOOOll-'^COMOCO I" N Mm -Cl-a-OO I" 

' I ' ' I I ' I I II I ' I 

uicj^O coO\r~o>O00OOsr~-fl--*OC0 e^T(-cicO'OcOC>co^OO" t-cocin r- 
i-t r^ i/i M r*co n *H M o ■'J- r^ ci id o ci ■^'n'vo CO cow ^ o cor-\0 m co c^ co io 

II II I ' 1 I ' I I I I I J^ ' I II ^ I I I I I 

Oi>Oco co>oooc»vo i-r-covO>Or-ir)oo mOCI cO"hO c< £:C0lO<^m^-0 O) 

OMSwi-i WMC1 

>0«0 O Or-O >- CO^O O " 00 COV3 N i-i0000'lOC00>r-\O0<5 00 rfCO O 

"eimco->)-cO'-'coco^-!i-Ti-|con« moi i- i i-i-mcoco-d- a 

I I I I I I I I I I I ' I I I I I ' ^ I ''Mill 
Tt-oiocD Ti-oci d^O"-!-*" Tfu^io-<j-ioci-*'- o^coo-^mcoci CO^lOC^ 

WWMClMI-l WM 

\0(»r^co-coo CJ^^"C^c^ o^-ico ni>"- c>i i>t~-a-o< ovoooOOT^o co 

C^ I a I Mwi COCl - mmCICSmC)!- wM| 

T)-ioo\Oscocor-oo lOcoOTvocot^ioo >ociO c^HiTj-ci t^irjThco c~'r~cir~vo 

m 1-, « ci ►. « 

VOUIO -^OnmO C^OV0^010 c0»O OCOOOCOw ■^■.l-OiO inCJ\OCO CO-OvCOOS 
COMCIOlli >-iCO"C«|i-ii-< ClMwa |MN.C0"" - 

I ' ' ' I ' I ' I 

^oan o>o^o*oco rt-incoci uio-*" Minm- incic) o\ti-o^ o in>o>o r- 

MO M „M.O M Md M 

lOC^M o CSVOiOMioOO C^^O'^OI ■:hC»C00\lO«a\CJ\r^\O0lOr^O\'-'M On 
liM COmmOiCOm CiMCOCllNM, OmC)Nm I""! 

II I I I I I I 

0>iOlO0\^MTfM I>C«a) r~ir)COCOM ciMM ■♦OJMCO^OCOCicOCOO a>^ M 

M M a M M M O 

>0 coco CO M io\0 l>Clini^MVOM0yD inCO VOCOCO CJvC0«3n>O0\M -J-^O m 
C~--^MiO||« lOCOCO-*ClCl-<t-COC0||MC0 (Om-*->}- M'^-iMM 

Mil'' II I I I ' ' I I II I M I 

■* m^ CO c^ invo CO r~ c^co n cooo u-iMO-<fociOcoinTt- cooo lo lo ■<i->o >o 

mOmOmm mm 

co^or~o\t^ioc~oooioooioooco irj m moi -^om m 

o ooi ^imcoomimcoi m I iM o-a-co m 

I I I I ' I ' ' ' II 

•tJ-mwvO tHC0»*«\O u-)iOLOvO«iOiO« COOO COQwO ►-< COOO COwi-iO CI 

lOi^co^o ThONiou^wooO o r*\omci iocoo\0\cO'-''-* lO^c^O'O ci ^t-^ co 
•^ '^' "' 1^ o "^ ?* I^ !^* P "^ "^ o* tH M w ci o' M ^ w* M ci w oi w M w M J ei " 

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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 367 

COCO cn >-> (NfOC?iiOT]-Mao-i-*nr-a^o3 '-•OcooncoOnci Ogoujo'JW r*c<ioO\T*Oco ci 

I I I I I I I I I I ' ' I ' I 11' ' ' 

r^cofococir^^ o -^ co MD CO r^oo cooDo^O'^^»omo^o *-< a^c^lO^--^■<rn o ci -^^o ei 
""-co- — m -CI - - N*-- 0") « "-"'--}• M n 

coom-'OOT" c^vooocom oomu^" cir-co ci'-o-fiocoff. ■-• " ioio~ o ioOin~ 
IN ,M«|M ■<»-<Noi||Cii-"-n _,.M ^N-- I n I 

' ' I ' I I I I ' ' I I I I ' 

VOCOC^VO COMDCO r-mOfOO C>^CO rOOr--CO Tj-cl-tf-O 000) — o r^C0'l-O\\OClvO •*■ 
-- CO---'*- - M o---to-~--<3----co---Tr - CI 

r^c^c—ior^ — C3 lor^'-'CO^OCOt^ioc^cou^a^CNOcoo -yDO'OCO r^'j-n p^0\OO\03 
-c»MOico-iO)Trci-| Ml coooMo-)-i-icoci- M co-rcoco 

I I I I ' I ' 'I 

— " COW" »0 01 -^ « >"« U '--•Cl^-'-i-r'-C*'-! TT^i-i— CI 

W^O li^voo- lor^r-vo mior-co a^oOMovO no^co O iO*^o»co lo^r-voooo^ r- 

I III II I ' I II I I III ' 

t^lOtO^O^OM>n(^l 0\ \r) O -i-C0O\^ COTfO-fl-cO 0"-*'0'>*-COr~-hO-OvO>00000 

iH-c^ioowMirj HO 01 ->-'«-i-:i-.co--ninci--uo-«S'i- 

vo^ooo t^iocor^i>r*oDvo 0\-or-r-0\cocot^voOTf»ocoONCo-i-fOcoco O owovo 

-I- CTC«0« iri . -COMi 'J-ITTCI CO |Tl-p)COi-.Ci lOCO - 

I ' I ' ' I ' I I 

>OvO0 CJvOiOO M^Or~iOCO OyjO^vOl— lOCO "OIS COOOOO r-COulOOO *c^N « 
n MfOi-Mfivn -- ►,««- COMMi-icOCI C0"mCI-9-i-. mCO 

■*oco iO0Q>-i incocoo lococoo -j-uoco- " o\Mvo^ •t^-3-co 'j-cocor~co O^o- m 
I I I I I ' I III I I I I I I ' ' I I 

0\0 r-ncoo O lOvoco O\coo\"co -^j-oaicOcoi>'a-T*-o\MO r-vom- M r~coc? r~ 
M MCOi-.M-'i- - - " a " -co MC>i-MM,r„ -co 

coc*" - loc-co'coc^- coor-'io- C3\-<*-- o O"t>ioco-ior-r~cooi o cj\ lo'c^ co 
m^Omco CO --^-coiOThcocii nioMMTi-^j-io- CO-- |-«--ciir)c<-oi 

1 I I I I j^ I I I I I ' I I I I I I III' II I I 

lOt-O C1\0I3>CD C0 0-3--^CO lO-CIOO C3\COCO>OlO■<J-•^l-cOOC^O^CO»0^-COvO lOOO c^ 
MO CI >-■ --o«ci--n 

>On"nr~oo-*mt^ino nUcoo o o-o- cocom^ -iottcicciom •Ji-ciioci o\ 
THOinio-co-'-ioioioui->i-cocO'*c<^cocO'!j-co oci^nco-m >-io ion 

I I I I I I I I I I I I ^ II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II II 

^oo t-vo->i-ooco iDOvo ooouicq t— o>isr~co co>ococi c^c~m u^mnioci ■*voc« n 

0-»-O\o iniocococoMvocxj o\coc~o\0'i-'n-*coirnovo r~i-coN locqcon Ov-5->Oco 

MM IM.COMCq Tt-I „-. -CO-MMMl. ClCi| CO i 

I ' I ' I I ' ' I I ' ' I ' I ' 

ioioc~c^coc>ot^co 'i-cicico -a-->i-c< o Tr-«}-mcou^comoD coc^ocjcococOr-CDcooDr~ro 

MM «-_„„f) 

-fl-cor^tn -r^o\coo\a\co MQ^^o\o cocjcoio-^c^o c^c^voo^ c^oir^iovooDiooo o\ 
' M 1 ■ ' I I ' ' I I 

mO^COt^COlOCOvo^O^O(M COOC^COr~cOO^lOr^lOl^)•*r^C^\0■^Cl mCIvO OvCO C~vO m 

-MC<M - - „_M C) 

»Ot^'fl-COO-"cO01 OvClint^co'o'o -COCOCOCOvOO-a-lN C3\-CTiO dOcOiOOvlO'^O 
MM lUONClCO lOM — iO\Ort-LOi- CM|M-|M COCICOCICOm CI 

1 ' _ _ ' ' ' III 

oocir~t~\o^OO 0) Tj-MTi-o\coo^ On^ocoo - mr~ior~cj\nio»0\Ococot— voco^co 

CJMCO O^000cOr^MO^COvO -C0i/^OCOCOO\- COW— ThCOCltOO COC--\OCO OCOOMD 
ct-'^d iCiM-TTTr iO(0-rocg- ■a-coci-Cino->0|MM--»oc> 

I II I ' I II I I I I I I I ' I I I I 

^OvOc^O^^-^coco mcococ^m MM cOMCor-M^«vo ■rc^-'j-cO'^c^'^vo r-c^\ocovo 

C0'*C0iOOCO-l-O0c~C10I*0'O\O-i- CD n rOOO\iOMONC?r~*^OvOO 

Mco Miocj-a-MN-aMiovoco^M - ^ -^ a \o coomioim-^-oco 

I III I I I I II I I ' 

coc^M M mu^iom m 0\co CI 'j-comn cooo coo-O m mn-co -con - "j-ocot^ 

looon n n>o>qcq O"- o\CJ>r-io^_ coouiqirj-nn cocooviocj qviop-vq inqii?-«- 
w d M M d d M d odd d\ d d\ m d n n m m' m n to n m d -' - d «' c5 - dvoo d d> 

ol^ ol^ ol> ol^ ol^ 

coo "^ 00° no' n o n.o 

■9-ci TCTf ■d-n -^-i- ■«-\o 



368 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. "JO 

I ' I I I I ' I II I ' ' I I I I 

w«oo N cor^r-r-Owco Oor-cor^cOTj-con c^i-o O cocii>ci\OOv«'^ 

<-.!-. COW cjv-ih-. CJ ^ i-i N w^cO'-M CO wN 

lOr^-^covoiocoo cowo uovo'-'co CI c^vo^ Tfco^oi r^oo — c^ci O"'-' r* 
'-'C*i-i-iThci'-«M[cocO(N'-tT]- cj-H — k-i| oil I -^ jaci>-i 

I I ' I I I I I ' I ' ' I ' I t ' 

ON-'h'O 0N00COC0'Tj-m0'-''O cOCOr-^COcoc^O lOOioO iri'O-^'-' — O'-'VO i> 

«vHCO '-•-'CO i-.>-.CJ ^ C» i_oi<-«wj-.cO'-''-'-'-^«'- ci 

coo*"- CJOOOOOD lO-^OO "-■ lOrOO\iO'-(NCOCh«ONr^« '-'lOv-' r*'-CO01CO 
CO I '-(vOCi-^CO'-'CO ■^■^CO'^ 01«Tj-C1^0*C)<N civoco 

' I 

COVOOO IN (NChO >-• inOO mCJCJ-rJ-CO COCOUOVO Thh-tO lOVOcOn '-' ONCOd^VO 
i-i'-' Tj-in(N0O'-<'-''-iCO i-i-hhC)"^ wi-tOO '-'00 

C0'>-'ior-on0 « On-^co iHcooio cjcoonnvo cir-w "-f lOO'-' Onoono w 

III I ' 1 ' I ' I ( ' I I r I ' I 

ot^ino -^oooovo concocxj rt-^co cocomo3 o -omco isioa '!^r^cl■;)-m 
II ' I I ' I \ I ' I I ' I ' I 

«\0»ocooc0'0 oiocor^o r^'-'-tfW cor^miO'-'vovo cot>o)'-' o vooO ci 

MWMTr>-< --H CI I-" 01 ►^cO'~« lo^-oi-^i-'-'CO 

»O0C0COiO«'-' 01 ONOr-- uOmDO McO'-'^ '-' '-•OCT C0t>0\O O '-'r^OJ CO 

o»co n-^m'-<oicowoicoco lO"-" -I'-oico -- 'Oiioii 

II ill I II I I I . I'll I ' I ' ' 

»no\0 '<+-ino\'0 o ^ "t- \n >-> cor^ioioc^Th'- oi cow-^ovoootoo^coThcoo 

I-II-IW-.J- cjiHh^ CO <-■ -.cN'-t'-^'-'CO i_oi>-<i-'CO 

COCO'/^tJ-'-'mi-i Tj-vOrt-ON-ri-inoOCl C^Or-Cl 01 COlOOOD i-hOICO COOO^r^'^ 
iCOCJ LOiMW" Cli-.iOkO'-'^COTl-j COi -.hi OlCOcOcO 

' I I ' I I I I I I I 1 I I ' I ' I ' I ± I I 

coc*ioci Tj-coior^vovo-'S-in'^'-'a r-cooiuoo ooi-^ior^vot^O loOOv*^ 

0) ►H M W w OJ -^ 

co-H^ I rocowwc^co\0»o^co<^S'-'«i-<'-i ji-i<>^k, icop •-'lOi'^a; 

I I . ' I I I I I j_^ I I I I I I I I I I I ' I ' I I ' I I ■ . 

ooovo ot-'*^ loio-^co conco lo T^ 0003 -ri-oocj -e-^-coo o\"0\iom 

_ ' I I I ' 

co>o Tj-cooOincf Tt-iocot) loficoo on-^^o co^^coi>vo^-*-*Th«vo 01 

M M 01 1- M „ « 

00^" ^OCTilN O\0C0tJ-O\0"'-' OICOC^COO COCOlOVO p-r-" " OCOOOO 

I _ I I I ' I 

«M>-.i-c M ciro OCT 

^M" -^ 0\ •«■ o io<oO'*io(»*oo r-c^nioo NIC" coo-s-ioo ^voci o\ 

II 11' II ' I I ' I ' I I I 

^ m ■* m "d- co^o oiNoo^j-CKcococico coconoo ocio ^■*a\iooo cO"(m\o 

100003 M >ocio oioint- '-'T^c1cococo ^o-rco'- Ma>n t~iooinn 
lo " I C) Ti-vo »^>o-fl-H-- - loji- TrC3cocoio-"0in w- 

1 I ' I Mil II ' I ' I I I I II II II 

lomcoco oimcoco coo^^i^o Ooor^o oiM'^r^Tj-mvo lO^^i-roooo ur^oiovo 

i-iih>i-0\i-iU-)0\00\On'0'^-CO 10 rf r^ OI'-'N'-'^ON'^ 

»-'-vc*«j'-'»-'|COOioi-t hH covom-^ 

Mil' 'mi I 

CO C~\0 >0 ^^t3^O^00 t>iO^)-MD nOO m 000 OvOOOO O-*" m COCO CO •* 

H Ct " >-. 

u-)>oN N qq\ci(X3>oinyD o_ i-;coq -"i-cooin^ o^^o^ r^co"^ o^coq\ 
0\ d\ Hc 6 ^ \h^ uo lo ui vo »o' 1-^ ■-' - J cI -■ CO ci w o' o' o' cd -• -' o' c~- r- cb c-- 

°c.o'^ °„o'^ °.o'^ °„o'^ 

■^00 '^Th Tj-\0 ^CO 






NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 369 

O^COOn — r^Tl-Cl 01C0O\\O r-OO-^OO Tf-C4C0(N *^ ■-■ 0\ lO "*■ ■+ '^ ^ a> lO CO to W CO ■* 

Ml' I ' ' _ 1^1' 

!-►- o - ^ ^ ^ CO - wu.-. 00 _ om >- m M «- «co 
t~— iniNcoinmo cooio -• -coinr-cooi<» o MOoo noot^mco r~03"v6 o-p-ci 

>-* -^ i-i-Tj-cOCJ— ^«^C0vO(NC1*H — CO-CO 1^1 COlOMa«-1 i 

I ' I I I I I I I I I I II ' ' I I ' ' 

II '1 '1 I ' '11' 

Mcocn-*oDOoa)cO"coiN\o 000 co ^ o\ « r^ o OvuD 10 >o 0) CO « t^co - yD ^ CO 01 - 

11- 00 ~(NCO«i-'-.Tj- -con -^„ „CO"-H"'«- «cj--_^ 

co-^r-0 ■fl-cotoco cioco" "r-Tj-n ON'-icoc^T)-o)Tj-ui"r~'*ei ^-.-.t~•co■-'-C^r^ 
I 1 I ' I ' I ' I I 

Onco o \o 0\ Ti- on « co^ in Tt- in o 0\ ■* - mco T^ co " ■* m coco >o >- 10 ■* o co>o o a> 
- CO " COM" Tr"-H COO" Tj-M'-'nco-i'- com-.-h-o-i-.-.-co 

t— « -"i-^o coca 0\vo ovo coc) oci»o^co^'i-Tt-co«vo r-mcopi civonco ■- -c3\coio 

C)««l-4 _MMM |l-l CO-OC^lHcaHCi-lCOlOCOl ">H|"lOC) 

I II I I ' I I I I ' II I I I I I ' I I ' I I I 

©"r-CO — -^n r-^"c^OiO^ NUOUOa OO'O mW'^'-' ^-O^00Cl O\OvOC0 T^0O^0 0\ 
H.N-'^'-' -•« .-..-.■^M HHC0^'-''^Tj->- ^c* i_«cOi-' cii-iH^^ro 

OOUO'-* '^O^OOiOc^vOwvO r^C>COa\— ^vOiOVO ^-C^0 invOCQiOVO «!NC0^O «C^■»^lO 

II rt|-<i-ncO^-^ COCiiJO CO vOwico^lOiiow^co-^co ^*i!^ 

I '.II II III I I ' I I ' ' I I I I I I ' ' I 

CQVOr^'-* t^Or^-'J-Ow-^mvOciONr^coOvO a\mr^— cONVOioro-^t^corfcor— r^r^ 

d M CI-" M « Oi-M CO -MCO-H. CO M-COi-i'-' CO 

cocicoco inovr^" >oco o o r^ co 10 lo 0\ cooD co cjr^OiPi mnioooooONOjj- o>cc3 - 

CI0)«!^CO- O^OCO^OiO-'OCOCO'-M'a-CO -"l-l- Mi'^iOCOi I 

I I I I I III' ' I ' I I ' ' 

Th com 10 •* CO O C3n CO C0\0 <N lOclvO CON"^ ON'O-'-CO COPIED " i>cOCOCOCinO\CO 

O'-'cO" Tt->co'-\oocx3- i- cioci connn Tf-c^c^c^colO<^c^'-'^Olnco-cocoo 
■"ii vO'~iTt'ACO'<r-.co coioco-Hin-^cO'-'CO-'""!! -coiom-Mj 

' M I I I I I 1 II I II I I III ' ' I I ' I II 

mMc^cococoio»ocouoioco-^\omio-<^coioo) iotj-'^cocoio^ •.j-Cn-^cO'O co-'tr^-* 

o " CI M >© T^ CO " " CO CO CO lo'o'oo o On CO 00 00 tt'c^ CI ■^■omONincir-co-^ocJ^O c< 
nci-i Mk,«vo inco «cici"TrcocO"«coci oooi's-co i-c-- 

I 1 ' _ _ _ I 

-.j-wvO •-» I00-^0\c0r^v0v0 UDO^O -O-^c^t^inOO — COCOvO r-\0 — COOvO'O'J-in 



ciHico m^oo\0 cO'>j-c)Cj\r-OTfcoc) mr^ctco ocococoio-co^o (J\tj-'1--*c)co<x3 - 
H-uoco I ci|Om-^|Cico-ci-i-i')-| --ci-cO| ""11^ 



I'll I II 



•♦"co^ 'i-vO^C) -vOCOOnOO C1>COnCO OOCOvO O fvMO miO-r~iO--'(3\0<DnO»0 

acococo-'-cO'-ii TT-coconn- >---j-(s-!)-|- «-i--coac«- 

1 11 I III' I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I J_ I ' 

moo inco«Ti-covO"-oo co-^oc^cou^•9-Pl iocotj-n nc~ci - cocoo>o n>oco- 



co■<^■c^-tooo^mcocooo^ococoo^^oco co-a- ^ot^^n1■^oc^cooc^c^cor^ cico 
c)~ in in m .-o-.-s-cj- i Noo -vo- "|i 7 "I 

conn c^in^coN -s-oo o cit^coc* m o ^ - oa-a-com'-co -^-^-ocococoooin 



cOTi-c~inococoini^Tt-ino oo^« o cocovo mo^oco ^"cor-i-o-o-conora 
\0 -cocococonn-ct-'S-->rrr-| jinTrco^||rO|'-''>J-cocociNco- 

n^oiocoiot^iocovocooo r^coONvOco r-r~ioo-ciM*oo^r^ci u-i-omooo-«-'rO 

ct-ir-ci covO>0 ncOCTO" r~couoco<Or~\o O Or~- - lO^OOOD Osr^^O r~oq>c^ r^ 
c^ca'cdoo' r^vdrir~>bcDCo'co r^r^od r■cococj^cj^c^l-■c^coco'cboco'^o'^oco r-cot^Oco 



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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 









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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 37I 



I I 1 11' I ' ' ' 

cor~-cf)fOfO"Ti-co ioo>-<vO dc^'^coc-r-o ■^r~a>r~cO't-ONiM ioo>iNr-oo Ovt^0\io 



' I I I ' I ' 1 I 'ill' I 11'' ' II ' I 



I I II I ' "^ ' 111 

0\iO^ lOWCOCOfOCOCOinvO COCYIu-;'- "--OnO O COiNl><N COO\C0 O ^ C{ O "^ "-ON CO 

III II I'll! I I ' I I I ' 1 I I I 1 II 



1 I I I 1 I I I I 1 Ml' III 



II 1 ' ' I ' II 1 M ' ' I I I ' I ' ' ' I I 

noiDt-c-'J-oo M«o\M o\a\co" cooco 

O m -■ O -<J-vO CO O c^ m^ vO OWO -'O 00'<l-« COm^O COC0lOO\C100O\O\t>'l-Clc^ir; 
coo C)|lO-'l-'«lOCia<N-||"00'-''-CO im "I |01CO'<1-|""CO" 

II I ' 1 ' I I I 1 I ''11 II '1 I ' ' I I ' M ' 

■4- \r> -> ovortiO'«-r-cococoo\i>Tt-o 0\ crt CO m 0\ c~\o C) c^ m m m i>co \o « ■^a- 10 co ct 
M"MOi"n"iMM 

0>-i^=0 POCOO « 0\00^ '-iO\OCOO0 OOc^>Ol>">Ot--COvO^ iOt~-00\C0 »c-M M 

Mil' I II I I I I ' ' I I ' I J^ I I 1 ' ' 

ooocxjvo nt^^i-m-a-n>o o n^ocrj" -^-aio cq ocomo coo>o 0\cocom i>m"\o o 

r-TT" " OnOco " cir~O\00 r-'tj-i- ir)000r~0\r~oiOO\-J--y3 ■>i-'OCO[-'*i>ooO O 

II II I ' _ 

■s-OTfOvoo" OTt-M-<)-o\ioiO" " mcoiO" in-*r~^ cocooco t-cococooo-«->o 



coc-vo r-^oioN o inwcoco ooov^ lom" r-o-^j-co -^coti-" m ai moo mvocoo o\ 
' ' I ' 11' I I ' ' I 1 II I I 

O O\C0 [- M O CO ^O >0 •+\0 u-1 M ^ CI 
"CI " 

"VOr^O Tj-o-*« lOc-O C0i/)O0N0\"0N-!j-0\00000\C00C0C0inc0C0" " -^c^O 0\ 

M"ioo ci>-|" tt" iro ctm"n|"| "^"i cj nNr 

II I I I ' I I I ' I I I I ' ' II I ' I ' 

>omcOT)-ir)p'2iocor-coa a iot'^co^Ott" m t^civo inc^con c^ o\*covo c-mm 0\ 

OioiO'^0>Or~mvoo\"Oci"n Ovcoc)"co ^ r-cO"Oaci-^ cococo 
m"C) -j-|"VO ici-a-coco cO"OiOtj- •>»- 1 civoico cii 

Mil '1111 II I I 1 I ' I M 1 ' 

MC)-<j-r~ocicoi>"CO>oa>ciThM ooirTi-co co^o c~0"COTt-MTi-ci c~-oocoio 

— * ■ 

ci o •*■ CO c- CI" 0\ -^ ►<-o-0""Cica30r-ooovO\« 

cj nuo lo I ioiO| |Ci"ioiD'.*-iO|C( "Cictoiw 

I I ' ' I I ' 

000 O OCOO C0"00 " OCIO C) "O" Tj-OCiCOiOHCOClOO NCOCOOO ">OC0C) 

xOOvO covqocq ci lor-cj «_ c^'^-^nvqco'**^ cocooo moococo ci ot^Ovcq Or^«3 "O 
d\ d> o' d\ 6 '^ 6 " d 6\ 6 6 d ci " « o> 6 - o' " cJ " " <3\ d 6 6 >-I «' « m d ov o* d 



J^ ° '^ °J^ °J^ °o'^ 



•«-co 



372 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 





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in CO 





„ 


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00 


n 





in 





^ 


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m 


n 


CO 


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1 


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1 


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m 




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1 
















1 






1 






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1 


1 


1 


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in 


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r- 


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w 





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^ 


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CO 






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^ 


CO 








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n 


m 




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r. 


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^ 


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^ 


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n 





^ 


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1 


1 


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1 


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n 








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in 




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r^ 


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^ 


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^ 


a 





c^ 


in 


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^ 


^ 


~ 


in 


c^ 


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r^ 


CO 


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ON 


Cl 


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w 




CO 


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CO 


CO 






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- 


CO 


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CO 


CO 


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in 


1 


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Cl 


in 


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M 


a 


1 




I 


1 




1 






1 




1 


1 




1 






1 




1 


1 




i 






1 




1 


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CO 








CO 


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n 


0\ 


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ON 


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CO 


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3 


^ 


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in 


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n 





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CO 








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~ 


r- 


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r- 


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CO 


CO 


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^ 


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r^ 


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1 












1 


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r^ 


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a 


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in 


CO 


^ 


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o> 


On in no 





n 


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w 




^ 






n 








■^ 








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*^ 








" 
















Cl 


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n 




m 


CI 





CO 


* 





CO 





VO 


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CO 


^ 


CO 


Ci 


c^ 


r^ 


CO 


lO 


Cl 


r^ 


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On 


in 


00 


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„ 


10 


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CO 


m 


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J? 


a 


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C) 


" 


1 


CO 








c< 


n 


1 




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in 


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- 




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1 


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1 






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1 




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1 






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CO 


CO 


to 


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r^ 


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CO 


f^ 


in 


1^ 


in 


NH 


NO 


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t— 


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in 


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Cl 


1 








^ 








^ 
























~ 








" 








" 








N 




^ 


^ 


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^ 





^ 


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in 


0^0 


CO 








Cl 


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CO 


^ 


^ 


It- 


03 


j^ 


Cl 


Cl 


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„ 


in 


NO 


CO 


Cl 


^ 


n 


CO 


1 




" 




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CO 


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CO 


CO 


CO 




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M 






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CO 




in 






Cl 






CO 




a 












1 






1 


i 






1 










1 






1 






1 










1 













a 


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CO 


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CO 





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r^ 


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10 





co 





^ 


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m 


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r^ 


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m 


^ 


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in 





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1 


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1 







1 






1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 








1 


1 


1 


1 


1 








1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




1 




1 






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M 


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CO 


f- 


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[^ 


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i-i 


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Cl 


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in 


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r- 


CO 


M 


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t-co 


C^ 


Cl 


C^ 


^ 


CO 


^ 





CO 


r* 


in 


















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"' 




Cl 












" 




CO 








^ 


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m 






































































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CO 


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NO 


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ft 







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n 


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NO 


ON 








NO 


NO 





CO 





I 





CO 




CO 




n 




1 


1 




1 


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1 


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n 






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« 


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T 


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r 


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1 




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10 


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in 





^ 


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Cl 





in 


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Tf 


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^ 


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" 


n 


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CI 


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VO 


m 


0\ 








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^ 


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CO 




1 


1 


1 


CO 


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00 


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CO 


CO 


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CO 


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CO 




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1 


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1 










1 


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1 










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CO 


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CO 


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M 


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c^ 


r- 


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" 
















^ 








■^ 








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in 


a 


CO 


CO 


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^ 


^ 


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in 


CO 


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CO 


in 





n 


00 


Cl 





in 


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r^ 


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^ 


j^ 


NO 


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^ 


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CO 


CO 


CO 


N 


1 


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— 




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1 




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M 


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1 


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1 




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1 


1 








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^ 


M 


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n 


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f 


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in 


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On 





On 


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CO 


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CO 


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10 


CO 


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03 


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" 








^ 








^ 








^ 








"^ 


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q 


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^ 


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q 


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NO 





,^ 


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^ 


6 


M 


ci 


l-t 


d\ 


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06 


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ci 


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c~- 


r^ 


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K3 





On 


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in 


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1 - 










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■a- 










NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 373 

\ .1 









I I II, I I 



o CO o m CO 



ocoii-o ciMcoco MCfvo co^oo co-nvoco 

«-« I «C1*OCi|«i -CICOWI "I 

,1 ' I I I I ' I I -I I ' I ' 

c-c^O OvOOcon lor-ocj inoO'+Ococoy3 
nnn^ -.-.« Tj-n-civo oi(M-vo «-- lO 

0\r-N o n- o o^ o o\r~inco-*ro« - cinoj •*■ 
■'ill I t I 1 I I ' I I ' I 



OCOiOM 00003 -j-o>on O 1- 0\C0 0\ O cO Ov * 

T I 1 ?T' T ' ' ' iTI T ' 



I I t I ' I I I I I ' I 

-^-Hi CO -ClCO'-'CiCO-^MOiCOCO'NCO 



MM- n M 



»Or^cO-^OON- O -^OOv'O^OcOuoO or-uom 
W| |M(N«M (Ni |(N--r co-i 

O\co CO uoOlOT^o\0^*lOc^^o^0^oco ooo r- 

Mm „hhmCO ^_m« 

c^O-" ■^coor'Ci -"CJOi O r-coc5^vOr-r^^ 

I I ' I I I ' I I I I I I I I ' ' 

r» c^o o o\mc?icncoco[-coa)cicoco *"0 « 

0*00 M COUOOx-^CO 0'-'-' w CO-COClCOCttCO M 

►^PIN-CH «„„„, w>-coai| 

III I ' ' ' 

Tf^oiomcO'-iiOThninco iouocir^-i--^co»oo 
aoO"^ ^ d-^r^cococ^*^ « unco O in i> o r^ ^ 

VOClMrJ-j M iCIWmMmM MCOlCI 

I II I ' ' III I I ' I 

r^soci m•^O^co •-• r^«\o mco»ovo Onc^tJ-cO'4- 

M 01 « 1-. 0) " 

■^CO v£) COUO'-'OOVO MCOCOO CICOO CI ocoo\\o 

«« OM" COl|" |_|««M| 

I I ' ' ' ' I I ' 



iM rocOMcon uocococo OO^^ '^"?1*?T 



>>^e'' = 5e!=*>^e"""S£>>^ 






374 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. yo 






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NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 375 



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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 





10 \o 


n 


r~ 


„ 


„ 


t-.vO 


t^ If- CO ■*• 


p. CO 





in 


75 


^'TX 


Cl 


■0 


*^ 


01 




1 


^ 








•-• 


1 






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Tt 


■* 


CO 


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1 






















1 


1 


1 


1 








1 


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1 
















































00 




a 




CI 


m CO 


r^oo 


CI 


r- 







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'0' 













« 


" 


lO 


■" 


"" 




CO 




" 


" 


^ 


^ 


'* 




■^ 


Ov 










vo 


■d- cr 


■* 





On n 


in 


r- r-oo 


^ 


„ 


OvvO 


CO 


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00 


CO 







n 




1 




1 




1 




1 










1 




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1 


1 


a 




1 
































1 






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CI 





rr 


in 


a 


i_« 


M 


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M 





r~ 


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M 


M 


M 


CO 


in 




" 


N 


« 


10 




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a 


M 


in 








o 












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a 





VO 


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in 





CO 


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1 








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n 




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1 
























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CO 




co 


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Cl 





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m 


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n 





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in 





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1/5 


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0\ 










































iH 


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CO 





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n 


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in 


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1 


^ 


N 




r^ 


Ti- 











3 









s 









3 









1 









1 











CO 




CO 




t^ 




CO 




C^ 




CO 




" 




CO 




CO 





NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 



•—I C! 
1-1 u. 

H-H (U 



3 o 
o ,„ 

boy, 

^^ 

a! <u 
^ 3 



x; 


au 








o 


o 




J2 






O 

»-IH 


0) 

(U 






JS 


(U 


lU 


-'-' 


-a 



•-' o '-' 



Q f^ 


<u 


E 


hH 


U 


<i) 




<u 




Ui 




a 


V-i 


'c5 


< 


t)iU 




o 




3 


■*-• 


Oj 




HH 


O 




,C 


tn 


VI 


o 


^ 


<1> 


1^ 




ki 


03 


3 


3 


:^ 


0) 


rt 






u 


tn 


C 


(U 


0) 




Ot'O 




e 


oJ 


03 


"•^ 


-o 


in 




hH 


C 
O 


u, 


> 


rt 


3 

m 


> 


> 

Q 


c 


:§ 


^" 




o 


1) 


03 


^ 


tt! 






T-) 


'^ 


^ 




^ 




D 


tJ 


;p^ 


^ 


v^ 




-4-» 


rt 


n 


Mh 


S 




O 


O 


3 


c 
.2 

01 




3 

OS 

U 




tTl 




> 


1 


(U 


OJ 






p 




o 


1 


-In 




J 


m 


bo 



jT3 en 
< 



o 


in 


CO 


in 


^ 


CO 


„ 


CI 


CI 


o 


T^ 






lO 


vO 


(-* 


1 




1 


I 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 










o\ 


1 




1 


1 


1 


I 


1 


1 


t 


1 




1 




1 
































OS 


•>!- 


ct 


•>^ 




■■o 


r* 


lO 


lO 


CO 


CO 






CO 


O 




1 




1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 






1 






o\ 




1 




1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




1 


1 


































CO 


CO 




o 


CI 


lO 


■^ 


1- 




CO 





lO 


CI 


in 


CO 





1 




1 


j 


1 


1 


1 


1 


t 












CJ> 


1 




1 


I 


1 


1 




1 


I 


1 


1 




1 


































o 


w 


l-l 


CO 


^ 


o 


c- 


C< 


c< 


ei 


a 


„ 


CI 


Cl 


CO 




I 






















1 




» 
































■<*■ 


J^ 


M 


•^ 


•o 


^«- 


IM 


CO 


m 


M 


CO 


■>1- 


n- 


a 


















1 


1 


1 




1 


































1 


n 


CI 


o 


„ 


M 


Cl 





M 


lO 


o 


VO 


o 


CO 







1 


,1 


1 




1 




1 


1 




1 




1 


































-* 


CO 


CO 


in 


M 


Ij- 




■"I- 


o 


« 


1- 


CO 














[ 








1 




1 




1 




I 


CI 


1 


o> 




1 








1 




1 




1 




I 




i 
































CO 


CO 


n 


CO CO 


o\co 


o 


c^ 


CO 


•*■ 


t^ 


CO 


o 


o 


o 


M 


1 






1 


















1 


o\ 


1 


1 


1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 


1 




1 




i 








1 




1 




1 




1 




o 




CI 


' CI 


o 


■u- 


c- 


r- 


^ 






in CO 


lO 


in 


o 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 


0> 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




































N 


o 


CO 


■<- 




M 


CI 





•^ 


n 


CI 


in 









1 


1 


1 


1 




1 




1 




1 




t 




o\ 




1 


1 


1 


i 




1 




1 




1 




1 





































lO 


CO 


« 


■* 




Ci 


CO 





Ol 




in 


o 


CO 


so 































1 


a 




























1 
































Ov 





CO 




\o 


lO 


CO 


o\ 





CI 


OS 


r~io 


c^ 


a 


ON 




1 


























CO 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




1 








1 








1 












CO 


\o 


CO 


CI 








mio 


« 


CO 


oi in 


a 


N 


o\ 


1 


1 






1 






1 




1 


1 


1 




1 


CO 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




1 


I 


1 




1 
































o 




























































i T 


01 


^ 


CO 


in 


T^ 


c^ 


1- 


CO 


■q-iO 


T)-vO 


»- 


r^ 




- 


d 


- 


d 


"■ 


d 


- 


d 


-" 


o 


- 





-' 


d 






























CJ 


^ 


., 


^ 


Ti 


_, 


'-1 


^ 


., 


__ 


,^ 


__ 


-M 


_ 


ci 




££ 


Z£ 


£ 


E 


E 


E 


E 


E 


E£ 


EE 




o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


. 2 


^ 


Z 


CO 


2 


lO 


Z 


J7 


Z 


OS 


Z 


CI 


Z 


CO 
CI . 


d 


o 


1 ^ 


o 


T> 


o 


T^' 


o 


1 ^ 





T>; 


o 


1^ 


o 


1^ 




C\o 


Oo 


O'O 


0\o 


O^o- 


CO o_ 


CO o 






o 


TT 


o 




■i- 




o 


•^ 


CO 




o 


'r 




CQ 




" 




" 




" 




■" 




" 




CT 




0) 



25 



378 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 






CO CO 


CO 


- 


M 




n CO 


CO c« 


VO 


- in 






1 


^ 1 




" i 


'^ 1 




"^ 1 


« 


o> 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


I 


1 
























0\ 


N n 


CO •«■ 


r- n 


'J- CI 


\r, 




lO « 


•n CO 


a 


a 


1 1 


1 1 


1 


1 1 


1 ! 






1 


" 1 






















cc 


•« 


VO to 


VO 10 


tn T^ 


" CO 


CO 


CO CI 


* m 


- in 







1 1 


1 1 


^ 1 












? 


r ' 


\ 1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 


1 1 


1 


7 .' 




1 






1 










I 




- CO 


M HI 


w 


CO a 


■<• 


CO w 


M M 


Th M 


N in 







1 1 


1 


1 


1 




I 




1 


0\ 


1 


1 1 


1 


1 


1 




1 




1 






















vO 


M 


M 


n ■* 


M CI 


-to 


lOvO 


in 00 


CO in 


■<}■ o 





1 


1 




I 








1 1 




Oi 


1 


1 




J , 








1 1 




M 




















lO 


r^ r^ 


t- -^ 


r~ CO 


VO CO 


VO c^ 


as 


N vO 


in CO 


CO 









1 "^ 


I 










1 


OS 




1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 














1 




1 


1 


t- 


0\ " 


« 


C^ CO 





10 10 


M 


r^ ci 


N VO 


t^vo 









1 












a 1 


0\ 


1 


1 


1 


! 


1 








1 






















m 


■«■ 0\ 


r- 0\ 


•^ Cl 


CO 


" T(- 


r^ n 


M d 


•>^ Tf 


w in 





1 


1 








I 1 








o\ 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


i 














1 












Cl 


CI lO 


n w 


CO 


t> CO 




OvCO 


" CO 


M- C^ 


■"J-vO 





] t 


















CK 


1 1 


1 


1 1 




1 


1 


1 i 


1 1 


1 1 




















1 


»-( 


t^ 


n ci 


VO [^ 


VO 


VO 


VO Ov 


N 


« '^ 


CO VO 





1 


1 1 










C? 




*~* 1 


ON 


1 


i 1 


1 


1 


[ 


[ 


i 


1 


1 ' 














1 


1 


1 


1 





10 a 


CO 


w 10 


CO r- 


Tj- 


VO CO 


r- r^ 


M- n 


i-i c^ 





1 












1 




1 


ON 


1 




1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 












1 


1 




1 




Ov 


■J- 


CQ_ « 


V- 


Ov r~ 


VO « 


Os in 


CO " 


m 


CO 


Ov 
















04 « 




00 


1 


1 7 


1 


1 


1 


1 




1 


1 




I 


i 


i 


1 


• 


1 




1 




CO 


n c) 


CO 


n N 


Ov 


M 


VO 10 


ov 


N C« 


r- m 


o\ 


















1 


CO 


1 1 








1 


1 


1 




1 






















^ 








































** 1 


« r~ 


CI CO 


« vO 


CO r- 


-±co 


CO ■-; 


CO CO 


Ov CJv 


-a- 


Mit 
1900 


tt 


" d 


- d 


M d 


- d 


" " 


" " 


W r^ 


CI M 


. « 


-H oi 


— -1 


- '1 


- 01 


- e^ 


_ c-j 


_ ^1 


—1 '^l 


« r-i 


11 "a 


££ 


SE 


EE 


££ 


££ 


££ 


E£ 


E£ 


EE 







Q 


(J 


g 


Q 





jj 


Q 


Q 


T3 




2i « . 


Z ^ , 


•z. ^ . 


Z m . 


Z S . 


»S CO . 


2 m . 


Z m . 


ci! 


°coo'^ 


1^ 


1^ 


1^ 


1^ 


1^ 


1^ 


1^ 


1^ 


r^o 


r-o 


r~o 


vO "^ 


VO 


ino "^ 


ino 


^0 




•^ S 


■^"2 


-a- CO 


T 


Tl- 


^ d 


TT T}- 


^vO 


^vo 


1 


n 


CI 


c^ 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 379 

00 coo <n o o ^ — CO vor- m\o o cj --^ n oo o* 

I • J I J I ' I 



iron o o-^ 

I I 



- \00\ ■^'- CI" "-O OvO vot— TVO coco 0O\ 

m m| |- |m - -« | -« -. ^-j 



I I 



oo>o o m «■* r~t— o^O --0\ cfco fi^ OsO » - 

- - I - - _ „ „ , 



! I I 



vOTt o^n oco coo coco coo< -^od >-co nrt cico 

CO I II I - - (N Cl I - ►- CI CI o 



vOfO r-0 «- coo coi 

M - Id I - 

II '1 ' I 



mm nc~ o^ ■-ico ^ o\ 00 ^co "ci coo co 

w en « I j „ I 0. I - -■ -. - 



- n « CO CI 

II I I 



i/^r^ a\Pi r^co ciw OVO 0X> w-«j* "Ofl 

11-? ! 7 ? 7 ^ I 1 



imC oci \oO\ vo>o r^io lovo nT^ 00 

|- Id I -lO |CO CICI Cli- !« 



II 'I II II 



C» CI 

I 



O to CO >o 



I I 



COC 100 r^'^ c-— ci-^ -O CON 

CI I •■-. CI I - CI I I CI 



>00 coo\ o- CIO r~- r^^O 10 I— \0 CI CO CO 

CICI -3-- CO "-— oil iCI iCl "CO COCI 



com o- cici lOco coco coci 

I Mil' 



m ci 


•3-00 
•^ 


CO 

CO CI 


q r~ 

■T CI 


q> 
CO to 


r- m 

Tt- CO 


CI c^ 

■<^ CO 


>. in 

lO CO 




-T 
Vd IT 


SE 


EE 


EE 


EE 


S£ 


EE 


EE 


EE 


EE 


EE 



2 CO -rr"^ ^0% h;^- ^ CO 'rr *^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^ ^ 

o 1^ o 1^ o |> o 1^ o.|^ c I ^ o I ^ o I ^ o I ^ o I ^ 

1-0 -o 00 o <J 00 CO 0° 00 00 0° 

■«■« .^^ ^00 rrO ThCl ,r-r ^\0 ^03 --o •o-N 



380 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 






P~ 








^ 





•<r 


*-f 


CI 






1 


1 







1 




1 


1 


1 


1 




1 












0\ 





00 





CI 


VO 


c« 





•"^ 




C4 




t-< 




0\ 


1 




1 


1 


1 






1 




1 




1 




CD 





M- 


CO 





m 


m 





CI 


1 




I 






o\ 




1 


1 


1 


1 














1 




r~ 


CO 


CO 


00 


CO 





in 





lO 








CI 




Ov 








I 




















VO 




■4- 


o\ 






CO 

















o\ 


1 


























10 


CO 





I*- 


•«• 


CI 












M 








0\ 




1 




1 


I 


1 






1 








1 


S" 


\o 


C« 


CO 




m 


















1 


o\ 




1 




1 




1 


M 




1 




1 






CO 


•>J- 0\ 


« 


CO 


Ov 


CO 







1 










0\ 




1 




1 






M 






1 




1 




« 





« 


^ 





10 VO 

















0\ 






1 


1 




1 




1 






1 








>o 


0\ 


in 


in 





CO 













CI 




01 




1 








1 



















in 





C) 





o\co 





CO 


01 




n 






a 


1 




1 




1 






1 












o\ 


AO 


CO 


•^ 


•o 


CI 


•^ 


o\ 


>o 


M 


CO 








00 


1 


























CO 


CO 


in 




00 




CO 


C3\ 


CO 


CO 


CO 








CO 






1 










1 




1 








■7; ■= 














CJ " 


^ 


Tf 


in 


T^ 


in 


CO 


















in 


c< 


CO 


d 


ci 


d 


s S 














. 4) 


„ 


», 


„ 


-1 


„ 


., 


1) -O 


E 


E 


E 


E 


E 


E 






;, 




3 




3 


T3 


Z 


in 


2 


vO . 


Z 


Ov 
VO 







J^ 





is: 





0'^ 


Ix. 







o_ ■ 









■a- 


lo" 








00 
VO 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 38 1 





Lh 




hfl 










Ul 


a 


=! 


0; 


C 


U 


H 


<D 




<V 


<i) 


u 


u 


hn 


3 


(V 




-a 





oi 


Ck'-M 


B 





(L> 




■*-' 


^ 


C> 




tJ 


C 


rt 


<u 



3.5 





c 


<1) 





u 


J I 


C 


rt 


1) 




L^ 




ID 


<u 


ittP 






•0 




(U^ 


^ 


Vh 







M-l 


>H 







W 


& 


J2 


<u 





^ 






rt 









> 








Q 


c 


1 


c 


1 


rt 






r> 


U 



w p 



n*\0 vo CO 0\ cooo ■-•'^'-COr-wo —O 

I I I I I 



O CO n t^ to 'O ro 
I 1 I ? I I 



C0»O -1- ■* "O lO ^ o 

I I V 7 I 1 7 



cOMa)fO~\o >on 



cs M o r~ CO n 

7 11 II 



fOO«Cl-O>C0CO «0 

I I - I 



CI N 1000 O^ -^ 

I I I I I I 



n a CI CO n vo ^o 



coci-^ionci 0000 



ot^-^cocovo 10 • *-»r)incoa>oo 'tco 

1171 I I I -n I " I 

' Q. 

< 



en 

\0>oi0^"0 '-It-' KH «c1c^cor-co r-r- 

-"" """ I 1111-711 



Uh 2 



Ot^O-OiO o-o- 

^111 



Tj- -oj- m o CO on 



ioni-'i-ic^\0 ci<N n3 '«^lnco\0'-o coo 

Mil II -^Mii^rii 



wiO'^cO'-'io no 

1171 "II 



in t- CO -r 



O CO - CO o> c< vo 

71" 7 r" I 



" CO ^ On '- VO 
1 i 


- 

1 1 


C) CO -'£>'- - 

1 vf 


- in 

1 1 



I I 



CO 


CO 


CO 


NO 







1 




' r 




1 1 




1 


CO 


a 


t-00 


ON r- 


NO 


^ 






- M 


co -J- 




CI 


„ 














0\ 


Ov On 


On On 


ON 


ON 







CO TT 


10 


NO 


l/) 
















n 




n 


CO "^ 


10 


-■ 


01 



lO NO CO NO NO CO 



OnQnonQnOnOn OnOn 

-CJCO-'I-NOnO NO"0 

I I I I I I II 

000000 00 

-CICOM-IOnO -M 



in 10 

I I 



382 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



^ 


i) 


<u 


•n 


vc 


frt 




Ui 





IM 








n 


<D 


a; 


-£U 


u 





q; 


(U 


k-. 


Tl 


3 




4-> 


rt 


rt 




;-i 




(U 





a 




a 


J! 


4J 




■!-> 


C 


;-i 


(U 


c« 


C 


tn 


••^ 


3 


tf) 


C 


c 


B 


_o 


<u 


rt 


u 


>• 


:3 


(U 


ti 


P 



&-J- 



1) rt 

O ™ 

fe;S 

•a 



5 Q 



W k-1 






c3 u} a 


Tl- 


a N in r~ 


w 


CO 


- C< 


_ 


coo 








•^ 1 1 




-i 03 










1 ! 1 


1 


1 1 






1 






« 


















0\ 


■* Cl •^^ 




r- - « 


CO 


00 CO c^ m 


^ 


n CO 





1 



















1 
















" 


















00 


CO " « " 




Tl- CO - « 


CI 


« VO 




in 


CO CO 





1 1 1 


1 


1 1 I 








1 


1 1 


o\ 


1 1 1 


1 


1 1 1 


i 


1 


1 1 


1 


1 1 


" 












1 






^ 


m " CO 


n 


iM CO in 


^ 


- CO 


CO - 





Ct CI 





*"■ 1 1 










1 1 


1 




<7> 


i i 




1 " 






1 1 


I 






















^ 


■* M CO m 


c< 


" cc - CO 




CO CO 


- 




- n 





















On 


1 




1 1 1 


1 


7 1 


1 1 


1 


1 1 


" 


















>o 


VO t- CO 


in 


CO \o CI « 


'^ 


C^ r* CO 


vO 


« u- 



















1 1 


0\ 






\ \ 1 


! 


1 1 


i 


I 


1 1 


" 


















^ 


in in CO 


■^ 


n CO - 


in 


- CI 


'rt> ^ 


CO 


ino 


a 






1 




CI - 


1 






" 


















CO 


■>j- CO CO 


in 


MS CI 


>o 


-. 


CI CO 


CO 


•9- rr 





1 1 1 1 


f 








1 


1 




0\ 


i 1 I i 


1 


7 ' 




1 7 


I 


1 


t 1 


" 






t 




1 










0\ 


CO r~ 10 CO 


\o 


CI CO in - 


CO 


r^ - 


03 CI 


_ 


CO - 


1 1 1 1 


1 


i 1 1 


1 


1 1 






1 1 


" 




















« M - 





vO - MD r^ 


CO 


- 


CI in 





\0 0\ 













c< - 








a 


1 1 1 




' 7 ' ' 


J 


J ) 


) 1 


1 


1 1 


" 


















1 




n Tf ^ 


CO 


>0 00 


0\ 


r~- 








r- 





















0-. 


















" 





















^o - ci - 


^ 


- CO CI 


^ 


- VO 


CO CI 




coa3 


<y- 


















CO 


I 1 1 


1 
















J 1 t 
















CO 


". lo 





CO m CO CO 


CO 


0\ CO 


in 


^ 


in in 


o\ 


1 1 ■"■ 1 


1 


1 1 1 




I 1 




1 




03 


1 




1 1 1 


\ 


1 1 


1 ' 




1 1 


" 























































i! 1 


CO *o ^ in 




r~ -J- d -)- 




t- 


vO 10 






S 


d d d d 




d d d d 




— — 


d 






S 





































" 






































■a- (S CO 


-^ 


rf- CI 00 


T^ 


tT CI 


03 


■^ 


■^ -r 


n 


•<J- -^ ■•1- CO 
(III 


1 


■r T -.r .-0 

I'll 


"^ 


1 1 


-^ CO 

1 1 


f 


■^ T 


z 


1 1 1 1 
CO - Ov r~ 


1 


< 1 1 
CO - r- 


^ 


CO " 


' 1 

0\ r~ 


1 

r- 


r-» r- 




T^ -rr CO CO 


CO 


^ ^ CO CO 


CO 




CO CO 


CO 


m CO 




















bj) 


Ov 




o\ 




0\ 






0\ Ov 


J 






1 




CO 

1 






CO CO 


^ 


1 





1 


CI 




1 


50 






1 1 

- CI 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 383 



c 

3 



OWOO ^ cor-- r-MD Ch 

^c, 1 1 - 1 -^ + -4- 

" CO lO IN r^ 
C< P) - _l c< t- 

1 1 1 ^ + + 


coco 

1 ' 


0-^01 — ■^cO«r-—TrOco 
M •- cqco -• c-ci t-iio_i_ 
"+" + + + ^- -t- 

■d- - On C<l CO ^ 

+ ; + 41 4 + 


m in 

;+ 


CO (N 'O *-* -^ CO COOD 01 'O CO 

^"1" + "+"+ + + 

^ IT) NO "-- UO 

1 ^ + + + + 


o^ 

01 M 
+ + 


•-i_COCl COIN W C- ) -^ >^ 

;+"+"+"+ + + 

« On - " NO IN 
+ + + + + + 


in On 

+ + 


c^\0 "O TT w « m_i CO (N H. w 

" 1 " 1 " 1 "^ + 1 
10 

lO NO w CO 

1 1 1 + + 1 


On 


00 NO C« W CO -!t-00 - 01 lO CI 
-"-*INCOC1-.COOC(NO" 

^" + "+•" + "+-+ 1 

CO On 10 C5 " 

+ + ; + ; T 


r~ in 

M Cl 
+ + 


NOr-nisiocooNOCiMON« 
ONin-NOc^coiOMONi Tj-o) 

^" 1 " 1 - 1 - 1 ' 1 

C^ t- M »0 - 10 

M " i- , 1 « 

1 1 1 ' ' 1 


01 CD 

CO 01 

1 1 


t-r-0\ciMD o>0i -co T)-- c^ 
Onno oico 01 [--i-incoON- 

^"+" + " 1 " 1 " 1 + 

NO On n- 00 " 
IN , I ^ H, „ 

+ ^ ' 1 1 + 


- 

+ 1 


ooiooconnco^oicoci 

CO -tf-OO M 0N'-iC0j_t>_lNO CO 

+ + + ' 
01 r~ r- 01 c( 

4: + + + + ^ 


;+ 


^ +"■+" + - + ' 1 

r^ 01 in CO NO 

01 T)- Cl M 1 M 
+ + + + ' 1 


Tt- in 

0) CO 

+ + 


^" 1 " 1 1 + + + 

Tt- 10 0) 0) OT 

•^ CO " f I- Tl- 

1 1 1 ^ + + 


01 NO 

T T 


NO loco coc-oon-oiinOH 

r~00 NO 1 On -a- 0000 " 

^ 1 1 ' + 

On M -I in CO 

01 1 CO CO M 1 

+ ^ 1 1 1 ^ 


CO ON 

01 in 

1 1 


inavo coc^" iocononoco On 

00 1 Tj- ^ i/VNO CO " 1 CO •- 

-+-+-+ + ^ 1 
" in 03 

1 ; 01 00 0) CO 

^ ^ + + + 1 


TJ-NO 

H 01 
+ + 


CO 01 M Ti- en 
01 Tf 00 - CO in 

§^ i '^ i ^ ^ 

CO VO t^ ^ ^ "S 

r-- NO NO c^ CO in 
Ifl Ul m (fl Z Z 


On On Cn O* On On 
" 0) CO 1- in NO 

1 1 1 1 1 1 
000000 

t-i 0) CO -^ m NO 


o\ c^ 
NO in 

1 1 

- 



<U 



T T 



NO NO 

+ + 



+ + 



+ + 



00 n 

+ 



•>»- o 
+ + 



0) 01 

+ I 



01 CO 

+ + 



I I 






+ i- 



+ + 



NO in 
+ + 



0\ CO 



Ti- in 

+ + 



On in 

« 0) 

+ + 



■* 01 

I + 



O CD 

- tr. 
I I 



CO o 

+ r 



On On 
NO in 
I I 



384 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



! ^ S S „ 
; <" 5 s S2 

' 4, 1^ C OJ 



3 _, tH -M a 

Kni5 o rt lu 
.S oj „, CO -^ 

•2 «-- - 



t* O c« !U 

F y « C 1> 
■C J^ •-■ "O "— ' 

0. iJ-S ^.^ 






^ (u a « 

tc g vh ;:j S 

-4-» rt Ql J-( 

B <"^ S^ 



^ 


03 


*-■ 


•rt 




lU 


lU 


ri 


aj 


I-, 




rt 


;-i 





rt 


(/I 


n 






U 


a 


c 


u 






iJ p S •" (J 



u, 


J3 


u 


CO 

















MH 


-rt 


« 


> 









n 


un 


U) 






C 


l-i 


V 

H 


1) 
I- 


c 
_o 










rt 






hn 







(U 


> 






UJ 


ftO 


r-.'U 




3 






-5 


•0 








r> 


aj 






<u 


M-l 




L-, 


,^ 


■^ 


n 




fY) 








(U 


13 


C 

_o 


KH 


S 




J3 


en 



u 
l-l 




"o 

•0 


> 
C 

OJ 


in 

a 



t« 


0) 




C 



3 






(1) 






en 


a; 
u 


"a 


OH 


3 

E 



•£■£ 

fi-a 

i-i 3 

OS 


u 

ID 
Li 




1 


^" 


^ 


tn 


3 


u 








C 








B c 

3 cti 


3 

x; 


tn 

r! 


s 






u 


<u ."3 


U) 


m 












< 












H 


















w - 


CO 


- M 


-- 'J- 


t^ M 


COCO 


CO 


■fl-ND 










CO M 


c« n 




1 




^ 1 


o. 


1 




1 








1 


I 1 


1 ' 






















a 


CO c^ 


CO * 




CO 


CI NO 


« CI 


N in 


« 


CO -. 

















M 


Cl - 











1 


1' ' 






1 


1 


[ 
















1 






CO 


CO CO 




- 


10 r^ 




Cl ^ 


■^ in 


NO « 


to t^ 





« 






Cl - 












o\ 


1 


' I 


1 ' 


1 1 


1 


1 


1 




I 
























CO CO 


r- -.J- 


« ° 


I-. in 




CO 10 


c- 


CO r- 


CO r* 


1 


" 






] 


~ 


Cl 


- Cl 


Cl - 


" - 






1 






1 








vO 


NO -a- 


CO NO 


Tf 


On 


10 NO 


CO NO 


'- 


CO CO 


CO CO 





- 


CO 




- CI 






•- Tj- 


« CO 


CO CO 





1 


1 






1 














1 
















10 


r~ 


Tj- 0\ 


coco 


- 


CO 10 


10 


- 


■a- c~ 


Tj- l- 















1 *^ 


1 <^ 




Cl 1 


Ol 


1 1 


1 


1 




1 


1 


1 




I t 






1 






1 








t 




■«- CJN 


to 


a cjN 


■* 


N 


^ 


in in 


NO M 


«o 







CO - 




" 1 




CO CO 


Cl 






a\ 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


] 


j 


1 


1 




\ 






1 


1 1 






1 




cr, 


NO « 


- •* 


r~- 


NO r~ 


in r- 


Cl CO 







ca r~ 







1 


N 




CO 


1 Cl 


"-« Tj- 






0\ 




1 


1 


1 


1 


' [ 


1 


1 1 










1 


1 


1 


1 


( 


1 




M 


NO CI 




CO 


>n CO 


in r^ 




. CO Cl 


NO - 


NO N 





_ CO 






CO 1 




M C7 








o\ 


1 1 


1 1 


1 


1 


' 1 


1 j 


1 1 


1 1 


' 1 








1 




i 


1 1 


1 1 


I 1 






M 


" CO 


CI c^ 


CO 


mx> 


Ch CO 


t^ 0> 


•«■ 


CD CO 







1 1 








1 c< 








On 




1 1 


1 j 


1 ' 


1 


1 


1 1 


, 


1 










1 








1 


1 





- ro 


CO CO 


CT 01 


Tl-NO 


m 


Cl 


CO 


NO 


in in 







- 


1 CO 


CI 1 


a 1 


Cl 1 








On 


1 




1 


1 1 




1 






j 






















On 


- CO 


M Tl- 


[^ C?N 


CO CO 


CO -t 


CO NO 


" CO 


CO On 


CO in 


On 


1 1 




1 






- a 


" CO 


to - 


•<r CO 


CO 


1 1 




1 


1 


1 ' 1 


1 1 


1 1 


I 1 


{ 1 














1 ' 








CO 


CO 


■* r^ 


1-NO 


- 


coca 


CO m 


NO 


CjN - 


- m 


On 








w 




" d 






CO 1 


CD 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 














1 








c^ 








































- 1 


NO NO 


00 in 


NO 


CO " 





CO in 


Tl-CO 


tT ^-i 


CO Cl 


s § 

V 


CO ci 


n ci 


"' - 


J -; 


CO CI 


CO N 


tJ- CO 


in -r 


■^ -^ 




















- ri 


- "i 


„ ^, 


„ /-I 


- ri 


„ ,-, 


— ^1 


- '-1 


— IM 


V -0 


ES 


££ 


EE 


EE 


E£ 


SE 


E£ 


E£ 


EE 


0^ 






















g 


(, 


^ 


^ 


^ 


Q 


g 








-0 


Z '5 . 


Z ? . 


Z ? . 


z D^ . 


Z^ . 


Z ^ . 


z K 


~ On 

Z in . 


Z \o 


"o 


o^J^ 


J ^ 


c_l^ 


°„o'^ 


o_J> 


o_J ^ 


J^ 


°„o'^ 


°.o'^ 


ti- 






















^ ■«- 


■^"^ 


■^<X) 


^ 


^°CI 


TT ^ 


^"no 


^co 


■^ 9 




■^ 


^ 


■<r 


in 


10 


10 


in 


in 


NO 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 385 



Oco ror* mCI lOCO r^c^ lOio ■-'OO r-io r*i 



CO \or- CO ^ "-"p- \on CO' 



tiro coco r~co inci n>o on eO" 00 

71 ri :> i-,r r ? ? 



a - 10 



Oco 100 vooo O-* Clio cor^ ion oo* tho •«■«« 



>0»3 0\»o t-\o 'oci con oio 00* 

« II «" I"" 7" 7 



r-oo ui" vO>0 ->i-Ov Oit^ r-Ov Mfo >00\ 

■», c»-H R| CO" n" 111 i" «. 



«io inco O^O c^»-t r^r-« CTco "^-^ •-'■*f lOco ccr* 



003 co-o- 'H 0» CO" iDir coco <Ji ON -r CO r-^o 

I I 1711 I I 7 M 'I 



<r> n Br- on coco COCO »oo -a-co con >o>n 



I I 'I ' ' II II 'I II T I 



I I 



ion coio t-r- coo 

I " 7 ? I I 1* 



coco oco l^Tl- -T CO" coo O" >00> "t— 

MCI «" " c|M i-a- 111 I-. nn 



CO a ■o lOf "CO Ti-co "J-On r-0\ 

" I" "n "CO n --in, 

I I '^ I I 



oqi-; "0 '9" ■*!— o°* 

ci n cJ CO CO CO CO C9 co co 



E£ EE £E 



2; .CO . 2 •«- . 2; CO . 'z 



K.' CO "»■ "O ■->■■ "^ rr '^ 



1^ ol> ol^ ol^ cl^ ol^ ol^ ol^ ol^ oj^ 

-, -^„ _„ _„ ^r. „a j,o j,0 (,0 

■^Cl ^■*- -<-"0 -j-CO 



coo 000 



386 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 





Ti-[^0">oO-coioopro 
mo cnr~o On-i a\ -t o\'.d 


r- ON 




— , 





ro On 00 10 rr 


1 ' 


5> 




■^ 


ro - 1 _!. -r 
1 1 ' ^ + + 










cor^— Tc-^yl) r^vo o -rj-o co 


in — 




CO 1 01 1 NO " r-NO -^i ■«■ T 


++ 


0\ 




ON 


CO CT -r On NO " 

1 1 ; - + T 






NO r-'t-P'OO COCOt-'O CO- CO 


- On 




cOj_NO •-OiT-o CI M r^o 


; + 


00 









0\ 


CO NO - - - 0. 

+ 1 + +,+ + 






r-\0 « -« lOiOOvO r^O -^tj- 


O CO 






01 01 





-+ + 


ON 


CO NO NO C~- [^ 

- Ct CI 1 " 4- 

+ + , + 1 






cor-o in- ONiO com- 


vO 00 




— coo — C^i-'C^CO'^'-'CO — 







^c, 1 1 - 1 1 , ^ 


1 1 


ON 


CO >o -1- r~ On 
- 1 J CO - - 






CO - CO ON -r On t^OT t^ ™ 
OnO 0^c0_|. - -CO- 01 -^J^ 
^ + - - -+ + 1 


STi^ 


10 




+; 


ON 


CO 10 1- On CD - 
- , , , - CO 

+ ^ ^ ^ + 1 






Clr~r^-*OOcOOOOO-t- 


r- 




C-NOOlOlO-COl O-^CJ 


01 1 


■1- 


ON 


CO \0 CO - VO ^o 


1 ' 




"l* 1 1 1 + ^ 






r^O 01 ■'i-iOONTrNO c^io 


- 01 




NOOCO-c TNOOrr-t-i 

"+ - 1 ■" 1 " ! " 1 ^ 


- 01 


CO 


1 1 









ON 


r^ CO <r, CO -t- -^- 

+ 1 y 1 I + 






r-o — r-xrw iomr^'-« lOO 


a 0. 


IM 




-^ -+ "+ + + 1 


+;■ 


ON 


tT NO 01 - NO 







+ -^ ; + + r 




lOO'O "OCOO -t-cacOC] Ch- 


CO u~. 




oi 1--.CO-«C0-^OCO01| 


+ + 




■" 1 ^ 1 . H- t 











OS 


^ »0 On '-' 00 






11+^1 






0) o\ 'i- O'CO CO 00 CO -r CI ►-' r- 


- 




lOChO lO-l-i, '^'^— LO0^>^ 


++ 







On 


- - - ON r- On 




*" 


Tt- 01 I - O CO 

i !+-(- + + 










r-«0 rhCJ 'Or^Cl'OCOCO r^O 


03 MD 




CO0)C~'i-iOvO-«CO-t-C-", 


01 -r 


ON 


-^-|01|C. |-| 1 


1 1 


On 






CO 


CO -^ On -t- On r- 






^ ' T T ' ' 






OC-OcOOiOO-OnOOOD 


NO 




NO TT UOOD NO - 01 0) 00 1 


01 CO 


00 


"+"+"+"+"1 ' 


4- 4- 


ON 






CC 


r~ r^ - - m NO 






- - 01 - - 1 

+ + + + 1 ' 






O 01 - 01 O CO 




C M 


TT NO iO 01 00 tr> 






i i i ^ ^ ^ 




5 -^ -f 


lo ^ CO 0\ c^ -" 




^ u 


v£> vjD r- (T- 00 r^ 






O) o) cn cT) 2 2: 




bib 

►-1 


OS 0\ O* 0\ O. On 


0> On 


-^ Cj CO 'd- lO NO 
II 1 1 1 1 


NO m 

; 1 


^ 


1 1 I'll 
O O 


1 1 
O 


^ C) CO ^ lO o 


- 01 



1^0. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 387 





vCOOOr^MCOvOOCOiO-^ 


CO CO 


1 


CO vor^" -' ONOi COiOCO 
o,.c)-CT-.~-r.-, , 

oil 


- CO T 


^ 


1 1 


! o> 


•«■ 00 M c^ CO 




•^ 


- CJ CI . - CO 

1 1 1 ^ + + 










Otfor^coo CT ^0 coioo 


CO On 




r~'9-o ■a-Oi.ON- O.CONO 

+-+-^ 1 "^ + 


+-^ 


ON 






CO ■«- ~ ON CI in 






CO « . 1 + ^ 

+ + ^ ' ^ + 








CO o 




liO^O^ -^nr^r-iomw lOci 


CI in 


CO 


"1"+"+ + + + 


+ + 


c^ 


'1- VO '^ (Ti 10 -H- 
CT ■-. CO ■<*■ a CO 

1 4 + -1- + + 






CO rOiOro-OO^O r-w O 


On ■* 




c<c*c*.~*iOi uo-q-o ro\0 a 


+ ; 




- 1 " 1 - - + "+ + 


Ov 


-NO CO lO CI 0> 

! ' + + + 






0^•^C^T^^-c^ OnOnO in f- 


00 CO 




NO O lOCO - coco lOl/OiOlO'O 


CI 1 





o" T " ' "" ' "^ "*" „ ' 

00 (M NO 0> r^ O 
CO CO - CO CO - 

1 1 1 + + 1 


1 ' 




OnO n incoiAo -f-o- ij-oo o 


NO m 




-J--CO CO-rCOO) XT- ClOOi 

"• + -+"+" + -+ ^ 


Ci CO 





++ 




+ ; f i ; + 






OnO r-o *r-o.vo c^O m 


1-CO 




CM -o-O OnloiO>0 MCO ->0 « 


* ^ 





























" o n -. 1 a 

1 1 1 1 1 






r-r~o O^o -NO o c0O>r-- 


" CO 




n o ^ iTi e* r^-^r^uoO CO 




CO 



^":j:"+^i-i-i" + 


+ 1 




00 o NO ^ r~ 






C^ - 1 - CI - 

+ + ' 1 1 + 






-*-coo - coonco 0\- CO" 'n 


« lO 





+ + ' 1 "^ 1 


+ 1 


0\ 


On " >0 CI a " 
r~ - 1 CI r a 

+ + ' 1 + 1 










• OOmcOr-OCO'OOONO- 


NO CO 




lOiOinu-jNO *COiOiOCOr^c- 


in r~ 


9. 


+";%"+"'" ' 


+ + 




On CI r~ CO in C~ 






On CO in - - 1 

+ + + + 1 ' 








rroo 




vOnO t— no incO^O COnO "COnO 


a CO 





1 1 1 1 1 + 


1 1 


o> 


CO CO r~ CO ci 

NO NO M- CO - in 

1 1 1 1 1 4 






CI N r~ONO COnOno - COi~ 


CI d 




r^ CONO " c^ CO 0\ " NO inco « 


« r- 


ON 
ON 

CO 


;-+--"! + 

On lO NO r^ ro On 

-J- 1 -"J- CO -H - 

+ ^ 1 1 1 + 


1 1 




d r- 




CO coinn Oncoo r~NO inco 




cO'j-o coioininini^coinm 


n" 


CO 


" 1 " 1 + + + 1 

o C) 

CO 00 in CO in - 




_ ... ^0 CO - c> 






1 1 + + + 1 










C tJ 


O M - CO NO 




■= ^ 1 


^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 




S -^ -^ 


0> NO ON CO 03 - 












If) </) I/) ifl Z Z 






On On On On O On 


o o> 


! ^ 


- o CO T m NO 


NO m 


1 5 


O O o 







CI CO TT in -o 


- CI 



in " in 

NO CO 

+ " 

On CI 

+ + 
•9- to CO 
« NO NO 

lO On 

r ' 


-j- 

+ 


o 

NO 
1 


CI " in -r C3N in On 
- NO - m CI T , 

1 + + 

1- 00 " 
"CO - 

+ + + 


CO CJN 


o 

T 


CI 

1 


^ " in 'T « CO 
1 On CI 00 1 03 •- 

+ ^ 1 

NO CO CO 

4" -^ T 


" -1- 

T + 


•a-NO 
r- CO •I 

o" ' " 
CI CO 

T ' 


On 
CI 

1 


03 

PI 

1 


VO NO 01 " I- 

' "+ -+ 1 

r~ m CI 


NO in 
1 + 


■* CO 

\n IT) ~ 

^"+C 

o 

+ + 


CO 

+ 




On 



+ 


coco ■9- in TT in in 

CO in -9- CI On 1 

+-+-+ ' 

NO CO CO 

+ ; 1 


CO CO 

+ + 


O OnnO 

in 1 in 

1- 
1 + 


On CO 
COCO 

+ 

NO 

+ 


CO CO r- r^ CO 0\ 

4- 1 

in 03 

' T 


CONO 

+ + 


Tt- M T(-CO 

c- in "I- CO 
~ ^ « \ 

C~ On 


« 
CI 
CI 

CO 

T 


o3 t^ CO CI t- CI 

NO NO CI t- 1 -9- M 

1-1 ' 1 

CO NO 03 

1 1 ^ 


1 1 


00 

ro - in 

1 " 

CO ^ 

T ' 




1 



in 

NO 

1 


NO CI r- o> CO 
.- CO 1 03^ * 1 

1- lo in 
1 + 1 


c~- in 
1 1 


NO o o 
00 ■* in 

N _|. CI 
03 


o 
c^ 

1 


■9- 
« 

CO 

1 


in •<)• o> CI in 03 
" CO in_i C( CI 
-1 + + 

0~ r~ 
" CI NO 
1 + + 


03 00 

n in 

1 1 


CO ■a- 
o 

■9- 00 
+ 1 


1 


in 

Cl 

CO 
! 


c~ CO -9- r^ CO 

" NO CI NO 01 

1 + + 

CI 
CI c< 

+ + 


CO Cl 

+ + 


r-vo 
lO 1 On 

O On 
1 + 


+ 





in On r- r^ " r* 
a On -• c^ CI 

"1,1 + 

NO « 

_ " CI 

1 1 4- 


CI 00 
1 1 


CO r^ 
o 1 

m o 
o 

T 





CO 

+ 


« CO ■- I^ -9- NO 

c^ CO CONO CO m J. 
4- 4 + ^ 

CJ r- 


■H CO 

4- + 


in N Li 
m m On 

o 
1^ in 

+ + 


r- O 
r-NO 

-1- 

+ 


00 NO c^NO " 03 
-■ c^ in r~ CI 00 -9- 

+ 1 1 + 

CO r~ 
in CI CO 

1 1 -(- 


Ov CO 

4 + 


CO CO 

00 00 T 

1 . 

t o 

CO T 

1 4- 
2 tf) 


>o 

CI 

+ 


ina30000ci,0 
•r CO in in -J- ■9- 

+ 1 1 

CO 
r~ O O 
in On " 

+ 1 1 


03 -9- 

T + 




03 


> 

a 


s - ? 

^ ^ ^ 

00 ™ 

tfi z 




On On 
- CI 

1 1 
O 

CI 




ON 

CO 

1 

o 

CO 


On On On 
^ in NO 
1 1 1 
000 
■9- m >o 


• On On 
NO in 
1 1 





388 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



o 



o ™ 



(n 


C 




03 


c 


(J 


OJ l-C 






•n 


C 


rt 


Of 






bo 


Uj 




1) 


u 


s 


3 


rt 




1/1 






OJ 


(U 


V-. 


^ 


& 




u 


> 


rt 


c^ 



O 3 



'•5H 



Q^ 





10 000000 


1 °° 


oioocoo-00 


tn 




vO r- 33 -J- 




CO CO - T , 







" 1 1 




71 + 


I 


a 


CO 




'- 0\ CI 






c« c^ 

1 




7 + + 






oomcoo-Tvocn 


10 


O-rOmoivO-r-5- 


i-^ 




n 1 M- 1 ■«- - 


1 


CO - ioc« -a-cococo 


1 " 


0^ 


' ' 1 


1 


"^ + + + 


! + 





-* -T 








Q\ 


t- r~ <& 




Ov CO 






T "i T 




- CO 10 CO 

+ -t- + -t- 






OOOOOOC«r- 


o» 


co-n-o 0^00 n a 


— 




-«■ CO 


1 


cococ^c* con -r^ 


CO 


CO 


1 


1 


" 1 1 1 1 


1 





00 

1 1 




to 00 CI VO 

-H - 10 c5 

1 1 1 1 






vo 0» r- -t-to 


in 


OOr*-»^OiOio 







\0 1 « M \0 CO 




C4\ooo^oooo or- 


r* 


1 


' 1 1 


1 


"+ + + + 


+ 


e« -* >o CO 








a t- »o Tj- 




0' CJ o\ 






•' T T r 




CO "^ CO CO 

+ + + -+- 






cooocoooop 


a 


conoioot-o- 


c^ 




CO 00 ^ 


4- 


■«--MMi-wOOC» 


<-i 


"§ 


-+-+-+ + 


+ 


§. 


VO 

+ 




+ ; + ; 






C0\0 i/^vO -^J-COiOO^ 


ON 


■rr-\o cq lor^co 


CO 




10 CO -T CI « CO « 


C! 


-r - CO - CO 1 1 
4- + ^ ^ 
T^ 0\ »0 


+ 



0\ 


^ + + 4- + 

CO >o >o t~ 


+ 




■«■ CO CO 10 




+ ; ; ^ 






^- + . + + 








- o\c«vo u:)cococ) 





00 t^oo ^3 CO n CO 
10 - ul -• -a- - 1 


CI 




»O»OC0iOOviO00 CO 


10 


- 


■^ 


■" I " 1 1 1 


1 


-H 1 _ 1 ~ 1 J- 1 


1 





1 1 1 1 


CO Ul •^^ CO 

c» c» CO a 

1 1 1 1 




' 1 ' 

r- \0 10 CI 
1 1 1 1 


1 




-OO»0Ot~O0 


-^ 


« 10 r^CO •«■ 


>o 






+ 


m-vo ci t-m- lo 


CO 


en 


0\ 


0" " '~+ 

■«- 


^" 1 - 1 " 1 " 1 
in Oi o> \o 


1 




1-4 




1 1 - M 






+ 




''11 






M- o>o 10 « ■«- 


M 


Oico^o inc-o M 


■* 




00 COvO »Ovo\o 1010 


lO 


m 1 CO -> n - M « 

^ + + + 


'-' 


1 


+ + + + 


+ 


+ 


0) 

in in c 




CO Th »0 CO 






c» >o >- 




, CO \o 

^ + + + 






+ + + -h 








»OC^T)-MCJ-^0tO 


M 


00c-^c0--r- 







« _|1 ■«- j Tf 1 CO_j_ 


+ 


- 1 '1 i 


I 









1 II 




0^ 




CI « VO - 

+ 11 + 




lO CO 

117; 




j 


c^cor-O 000 


M 


--omoooo 


a> 




CD lO 10 -"T in ro 


00 


r^ M vo - 


1 





1 1 1 


J 


1 1 








> 1 1 
CO -s- 

CO ■»- U1 

III 




T T 






"- 1000 00 ■«- n 10 


CO 


LOC^ to^o »oo 


r^ 




^- + -^-+ + 

10 CO \0 




coco -^ c* in uo 


V 


CO 


+ 


^" 1 - ! - 1 " 1 

-0- CO "T 


1 




+ + + ^ 




- - CI CO 
1 1 1 1 






OOOOOOC^CO 


tn 


M C>ei CJ r^'<J-C0C0 


— 




00 CO - 


+ 


-^j-rrcOiOM 10— TT 


in 


05 
ON 

CO 


+ 1 


^- +-+"+- + 


+ 


^000 








n uo 




CO >o -1- 




1 " 


+ T 




c« n CI 




1 




+ + + + 




^ 


M S .^ 
00 m CO "^ 




- 10 -^ « 




JZ 




« On o> vo 




tl. 

nric 
uck 
lent 


f ^ ^ ^ 


1 


i ^ ^ ^ 


1 


1 -^ ■ M 


CO vo ^O 5 
\o \0 ^ "^ 

If) en U) '^ 


S 


CO '^ 0\ CO 

\o \o 10 10 


s 


° 




IS) tn If) (f> 












u 


T)- n CO 




■«- M CO 




CQ 


^ 'T -«- CO 

1 1 1 1 




T TT ^ 00 

> 1 1 1 




2 


1 1 1 1 
CO - c^ r- 
•3- >r CO CO 




1 ' I 

CO -. c^ r- 
■<!■ rr CO CO 




M 


o\ 





J 


'-' 




c« 




^ 













NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 389 



r-0 r-i-. COMCO Tf 


^ 


0\ r^ i_ ^ CI Tj- CO 

4-4- 


M 


4- 






- MS 




^ + + 




00 moo « - r- - 


00 


inn Tfci Tt-cocooo 


s 


4- + 4- + 


4- 


(?\ 00 CO 




CI CO ^ in 




4- 4- f + 




^OaO>OC)-cO^■" 


c^ 


t?4- r 1 "-I- ""4- 


+ 







- CJ M ►. 




4- 4- 4- -h 




CO IM -^ t-\0 00 01 





O>OC0 t-i^r-r-t- 




"4-4-4-4- 


+ 







t~ \o 




CO lo 00 - 




4-4-4-4- 




■a-Oi Oi coc~-r-r~r- 


^ 


c) 1 01 as 0) t^ - 




o"" ^^ + + 


-+ 






•-• CV) 00 CO 








' -f 4- + 




»OTtco coinoNioo^ 


m 


r-^ ^ 1 ^ 1 ^ 


4- 






01 ID 




CO CO M N 




4-114- 




\0 0^ COOv^O CI 


^ 


« If? 1 '^ 1 2 4- 


t 


1 







M CI - 




1 1 + 




cq - -a-r-^Ti-o -"h 


c^ 


CO -^r~mi>iom-* 


->j- 


-, 1 « 1 « 1 w 1 


1 






CO 0\ 00 r* 




T T T T 




0\C0 ^ 00 Ci - 


M 


OOIOOIVO-'OO'-' 


01 


^" 4- " + + + 


4- 






lO in 00 - 




«> - " c? 




+ + + + 




00 in m r~ o\oo -«- ■* 


00 


TT ^ 1 ^ 1 in 1 


1 


M 1 M 1 1 1 


1 







^O -* r~ Th 
1 1 1 1 




ino-<cooo3-«-co 


VO 


CO >£) 1 in 1 M ^ 


4- 






CO 00 




+ + ;f 




4- 




oc»oco-a-Or~Oi 


co 


coco CO <^ -1 OS covo 


00 


01 1 c« 1 CI 1 » 1 


1 


1 1 1 




-• -j- m 




Cl 01 d CO 

1 1 1 1 




Tf CO 0\ c- « CO •<^ 


M 


inmoOTra 000 oi 


Th 


"4-"4-"4-"4- 


4- 







cq 00 ■* 




n 0) M tt 




4-4-4-4- 




co m « ■♦ 




CO " o\ VO 








f ^ ^ ^ 


V 




ii 


0) - 00 




c^ c^ r' vo 




!/) in 01 (n 







-J- a 00 




-i- ^ -J- 00 
: 1 1 1 




1 1 1 1 

CO i-' o\ r~ 




^ Tf CO 00 . 







0\ 




CO 

1 










390 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. yo- 





■a- -o-oo O) r~ rK •& (y. 


CO 


MOOODr-soOC) 


^ 


00 inO 01 r-oisoso 


^ 






M -r « _|_ „ -r -r 


+ 


o O O t^so t- Oi r- 


t» 


CO i-* o r- CO in — 1 


so 







0) M O 1 M 1 W 1 


1 


01 - 01 1 •- 1 - 1 


1 




OS 


+ 4- + + 




o 1 
r~ CO r^ i^ 

« CI W CO 

1 1 1 1 




o 1 

OS - so CO 

01 01 - 1 

III' 


o 






w Osr^"-* r^r^c^ 


CO 


r-Ti-oiooooo 


o 


1-ocoinso-oo 






«««««"«- 




r- « so " 




O 1 Os^ c^ 1 so 


1 




Ov 


o 1 1 1 1 


T 


+ -1- 


4- 


1 




a 


n SO 














n- CO M OS 




00 03 












T r T ' 




+ + 




CO CO - o 

1 . + 1 








O -^Q cr>»nr-o 
r-\0 On r- O r- O On 


so 


OsO000Or~0s 


Os 


Oco •a-incooi inos 


so 






C^ 


c^ CO c^ CO 




tJ-CO CO Os CO O - Os 


Oi 




00 


o 1 1 " 1 " 1 


1 


^ + + 


+ 


^"+" + "; " + 


+ 




a 


lO vo CO vO 












^O « CO - 




CO O 




0\ lO On 








1 T T T 




O CO 

+ + 




CO -^ uo in 

+ + + + 








OSCO CO M - 


OS 


0"t--->ri"00 


^ 


muno coini>o « 


so 






■^1- Tj-^^iOiOiOiO 


CO 


00 COSO CO CO N 


01 


2 - 1 r- 1 CO 1 


1 






1 1 1 1 

« CO so CO 


1 


1 1 1 
CO CO r- 


1 


1 
o 








C« SO 00 r- 

1 1 1 1 




a n 00 
1 1 1 




c~ 01 in 01 
1 1 1 1 








■S-OD OS Tl- O 00 


M 


lOsO OSO'O M 


so 


ooiso-ocoooo 


CO 






•r> r-oo moo so c^ IT) 


so 


a r- c^ -a- CO n 


CO 


OS 1 m CI in CO -sj- CO 


01 




yo 


" 1 1 1 1 


1 


"II 1 


1 


^ ' + + + 


+ 




o 
















o\ 


- r- Os so 




CO J- m 




w 01 01 0. 








CO CO -ST lO 

1 1 1 1 




CO ■* ■* 
1 1 1 




1 01 rr r- 
' + + -f 








sOOiOOsioolOO 


CO 


0003-Ococq-. 


so 


ooico-soocoo 


M 






so •& ^ <n -t -t \ri \n 


•s** 


Ti- loco sn c~so so so 




corro inooso r-m 


in 




lO 


c ' ' ' ' 


1 


" + + + + 


+ 


^" + " + + + 


+ 




Sv 
















ON 


r^ " so 
cr so r- r^ 
1 1 1 1 




« 1/1 lO CO 
01 CO so CO 

+ + + + 




Os CO so CO 
~ 01 CO ^ 

+ + + + 








OOOsor^ninio 


00 


O r^ CI O r^ « cr] -ft- 


CO 


P4 0r^r*0cir^O 


in 






o-Osoiso-'Oci 




O CO o 0\\0 \o CO r- 




\0 NO O NO 0\ uo\o Tr 


in 




i 


"+"+"+"+ 


+ 


^0, 1 01 1 - 1 - 1 


T 


- 1 « 1 " 1 " 1 


1 


















CO CO Tt- T^ 




\0 T^ « -^ 




M Os so -a- 








-f + + ; 




(M « Cl CO 

1 1 1 1 




01 - - - 

1 1 1 1 








n lOiHvo r^i-coco 


CO 


r-Tj-TT'O'O ^co 


^ 


OO-COOI-SOCI 


>_ 






\0 i-i .-. o\oo c-*\o \o 


CO 


On CO r- CO CO n >-■ 


0) 


Os 01 r^ 1 so - CO M 


■-t 






o"+^+ + + 


+ 


^" + " + " + " 


+ 


" 1 " " 1 ~ 1 


1 




lO O so so 




01 O 




o 








Tf so so CO 








SO « Tf in 








+ + + + 




+ + + 




1 1 ! 1 








ID lOsO »0 OS COCO 


in 


CO lOO ONiO^COOl 


01 


c^winso-'tf-oci 


03 






CO COO- 01 --d-COr* 


Tf 


CO t O 1 «-« « CO lO 


01 


00 - OS - " COCO in 


01 




n 

a 


^ + +-+'- + 

SO CO SO 
CJ - CI CO 

+ + + + 


+ 


' " ' " 1 " 1 

CO lO 01 CO 

1 1 " " 

' ' 1 1 


1 


1 1 - 1 " 1 
O CO t- 

r V T 7 


1 






O O 





lO rhso 01 r* CO lO ■"• 


00 


00 r~ -a-co -a- " 00 " 


^ 










Cl^H-os-iOOl" 


so 


-o-O Tj-soso com- 


lO 




u 






"""+"+"+ 


+ 


;— + -+" + 


+ 




O 


o o 




o + 












sO 01 r^ in 




•*■ CO 01 Th 












so >0 01 1 

4 + + "^ 




Tt- 01 - j_ 














+ + + ■ 








■*00 OS Os ^ Os 





o-a-ocoooooso 


^ 


Osso Osooo 01 inr- 









i-cCTi-Maoi-in 


a 


so-^iooir^'- — Ti- 


CO 


■a- COSO T so in Osso 


in 




o 


" I " + " 4- - -(. 


+ 


1 '! 1 - i 


1 


II II 


1 




a 


OS Tl- CO " 

' + + + 




c^ '■a- in 1C) 
■a- CO " 01 




03 m 
Tj- m m ^ 










1 1 1 1 




1 1 1 1 








CO »n coco 0\ — \n -"i- 


r^ 


Gooaococo'-' 


00 


OoiO'a-r--cooi 


c- 






tTCO •* I> 0) so O 00 




ci ^0 in r- lo -^00 


in 


CO 1-so CO C^ CJs 






00 


lo CO CO n 

CO CO « -^J- 

+ + + H- 


+ 


^0. 1 « 1 » 1 M 1 

" in o CO 

M ■- « CO 

1 1 1 1 


1 


01 - «- 01 - - 1 
o 1 1 i ' 
CO " c> - 

CO CO 01 CO 

1 1 1 1 


T 






" coo C^^OC0'O^O 





01 incocococO" - 


CO 


lO"-" OnOn-»j-"^— )-< 


so 






01 - so -a-CO r-so SO 


lO 


m -shco CO so so so so 


so 


lom-^Tj-i^rj--^'* 






CO 

o\ 

CO 


o 1 1 1 1 


1 


+ + + + 


+ 


^ -f + + + 


+ 




O ■) >o 




o 












-a- o CI c^ 




O m r- OS 
so Os OS CO 
+. + + -f 




so 00 OS OS 

+ + + + 






-g 


« vO CO 00 




CO t^ " c^ 




O CD r~ 








CO lO lO CO 




O 00 I> Tf 




- O CO 






o^ ^ ^ ^ 


1 


^ ^ ^ ^ 


1 


o^ ^ ^ ^ 


'5 




aSi=5£ 


r- o o \0 


S 


o 


g 




s 




5 • Kn 


00 CO CO vo 




CO in in in 




OS -a- -a- r^ 






os" 


^ s: 2 2; 




so so so m 




in so so so 










W t/D W V3 




(/) trt W en 








o 


o 


o 




t^ 


■«• n CO 




•a- 01 o CO 




* a o CO 






CQ 


•<*- tT itf- CO 

] 1 1 1 




■a- -a- ^ CO 

11)1 




■a- -a- -a- CO 
1 1 I 1 






•z. 


fill 
CO w os r^ 

■^ Tl- CO CO 




1 1 1 1 
CO 1- OS r~ 
TT -a- CO CO 




1 1 1 1 
CO M cjs r- 
■a- -a- ISO CO 
















J 


OS 




0\ 
a 




OS 

CO 






^" 


1 






1 


CI 




1 
o 

CO 







NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 39I 



c 



r-n •<fri-'>»-n n « 


Ov 


r^ 10 lO "J- - »- 10 


1^ 


r^ COCO n n covo ^i 


^ 


- 1 - 1 1 r 




t^incocoo -^^ CO 


^ 


vomrocon-r-- 




1 


" 1 ~ 1 " 1 1 


1 


^- 1 - 1 " 1 4 


1 










1 


[V - - n 




txi <n t \0 




Ov •«- vo " 




T 7 T + 




- - a CO 




" ■" I " 




1 1 1 




1 1 1 1 




1 ! 4 




r-vo CO r~>0 -J- 


in 


ooc^ot^"C^^-r- 


~oo~ 


cjvr^os invo covo 


m 


>- 1 C< — CO — CO c^ 








oo_ivo - >rt <- ■»-. 
+ + + 




' 1 1 1 


1 


^+44 + 


+ 


4 


■<- lO I- 












10 10 M- 




■<- c^ « •- 




vo in r^ n 




T "i T T 




- ►. vo 00 
4 -t- 4 4 




^ " - CI 

444 




u-j •«• inco CO o> f 


o\ 


loci m>-^co -^-coco 


vo 


Tf --J- r^vn •- i^ 
co*ci ■«-5vinr~in 


CO 


to CO ■>!- « 10 COVO VO 


CO 


. CO '-' -^ ^ CO 1 

„4 1 , 1 


1 




1 1 1 1 


1 




" 4 " 4 4 4 


4 


c- n in - 




10 












- CO n. r- 




CO « « M 




J M M « 




^111 




" C( CO 1- 




'ill 


r^~ 




4 4- + 4 




lO•<^^ -.j-miovD 10 


Tj- " vO fO) CO CO 


Tj- 


vo -^ m ovo r^vo 


CO 


n M •«- CO 10 ■«- 10 in 


CO 


as - ■^ - con coco 


01 


« C1TO comcococo 


CO 


1 1 1 1 


1 


^ + 4 + 4 


4 


"44-44 


+ 


■«-•*■ in 












to n CI 




in r^ 




CO t- CO vo 








, 1-. in OD 




~ 01 CO t~ 




' T T T 






4 4 4 4 




i-C^r-o iDioO 


M 


inotO"-^-»ooN 


c^ 


vo mco CI vo ov ■- ov 


o^~ 


COVO « Tf CO CO CO 


CO- 


« COOO "VOi 'fl-L 

- 1 1 + ^ 


1 


1 r- c( vo C( in CI 




" 1 1 1 1 


1 




"'444 


4 














00 c~ - 




-I- 00 - CO 




CO vo vo tC 




« ■- lO »o 




T ' ^ + 




1 - n CO 




1 1 1 1 






'444 




r-»0 0\ •*■ -^Vt 03 





«o^o-oovo-^ 


h. 


inoinch- cjvm 


CI 


p, „ M 1 M 1 M 1 




On coso « in CO CO CO 


CO 


OMc^nmoi-a-^- 


« 


,111 


T 


^ + + 4 + 


4 


^-+4 4 + 


+ 














>-" c» «0 




Ov C> 00 « 




•«■ CO " 00 




^ - M 10 
1 1 1 1 




•- - •»■ c- 

+ + + + 




I-. M n - 
4 4 + 4 




in r~ - f ~ rr ^ m 


CI 


c^ioco inci CTvco-' 


n 


c^o - coovn ooD 


vo 


r- e^ •-• - CO i.s ON •- 




r- moo 10 10 CO " 


* 


in COCO 00 in ci CO - 




" 1 " 1 " 1 + 


1 


- 1 - 1 - 1 M 1 


1 


- 1 " 1 " 1 - 1 


1 














0\ r^ CO 




CO r- in - 




CI "■ OD CO 




1 1 y + 




T T r T 




T T ' ' 




00 Q ^ lOr^Tj-rr-^ 

Tj-\5 - in r^ 10 CO CO 


M 


n c^mi^^r^n ^ 


vo 


0) woo On"o« cor^ 





ID 


w4 „ 4 „ , - 1 


1 


CO COVD « vo CO -^ « 


CO 


^" + " + + + 


+ 


1 


^- 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 


1 














•^ 10 n 




CO n vo CO 




2 2 « " 




« CO '^ 00 

+ + + + 




+ + 1 1 




T T T T 




CO »oci -^\o Tt-COVO 


CO 


CO-vO cot^c-co 10 


in 


OOCO t~^cot^coo 
Ov 1 ONI 03 [OCT 


^ 


r- CO c^ ■«- c^ ■'S-^ >o 




■^1^4^ 1 vo y 


1 


1 


+ + + + 


+ 




1 














r- C3 in in 




M d '£) CO 




Tj- CI m " 




C« CO CO 10 

+ + + + 




1 + 17 




+ + 1 V 




coo«o-oinoi 





vOWr-'^r^O'OCT 


Ov 


^ I-. 00 Tf ^vo in 


CO 


«^+ " + " + " + 


+ 


OS tnco -^co n co i 

+ + + 


4 


n^Mcoi-i-Oi 
"+'"4"4"^ 


c« 

+ 














m r~ vo 00 




CO 3 CO e? 




o\ in CO 




» « 1- CO 




CO CO - 1 




■-. M C- 




+ + + 4 




444' 




+ + + + 




aoo r- r~ CO c^M3 


CO 


cou-jTj-c* in-H ina 





-a--vO(Mcoc«vor~ 


CO 


COONCICO 1- 10 c« 




^owmc^co^-woCT 




vooinoinoi-a-ci 




0" ' ' ' + 


T 


' ' ' ' 


? 


' ' ' ' 


1 














CO >o c^ r- 




CO -a- as ■<• 




■«- m vo 


1 


« - 1 « 




« « 




a cs M CO 




1 1 ' + 




1 1 1 1 




ill! 




00 -^ »n r^ M tovo oo 


rf- 


00 1- 00 o\vo vo c^ 


cq 


-^ 10 00 moo o> 





10 10 •* ■<^ 0* M- o\vo 


10 


- coc^'rTf•^nc^vo 


in 


CO" ^- i~* Chioo 





^" + " + " + + 


+ 


^c 1 « 1 - 1 M 1 


1 


« M c » n 1 . 1 












1 1 


1 


0\ 01 m 




M in c» -^ 




CO r^ 




a M n * 




M n C? CO 




CO c< 01 CO 




+ -i + + 




1 1 1 1 




1 1 1 1 


—^ 


i-inoo\m!!i\0'i- 





CO r^ a^CO CO 'O CO 


t^ 


M- r- u-)co CO vo c^ 


tf ^ CO"- -^-COt)--^ 




0\ -^co vo 00 in r^ 10 


in 


Ov -d-OO -rvO CO 10 CO 


1- 


+ 111 


1 


+ + + + 


4 


^ + + + + 


1 


- Cfl 10 




e 








n ^ CO 




c- •«■ 




Th ^ m 




1-. - « 




CO in -0- rr 




a CO CO 00 




+ 111 




+ + + + 




+ + + + 




ci « 




•«■ w « 




- w vo in 
n w Ov c~ 




CO <r, -r <x 


*; 


►- Oi r- in 


" 


", 















f ^ ^ ^ 


S 


^^ ^ ^ ^ 


.■a 


f ^ ^ ^ 






S 




s 




s 


" •♦ CO 




"co IT, n [^ 




vO 00 r- 00 




CO CO 00 t^ 




lO vo vo 10 




vo vo vO vo 




t/3 CD en 2 




w (/) en en 




tn en t/5 « 











Tj- CT CO 




•* n CO 




-J- e^ CD 




1(11 




■<1- -*-■«■ CO 

1 1 1 1 




■9- -a- ■<)- CO 
1 1 1 1 




1 1 1 1 
CO "-« 0\ C^ 




1 1 11 

CO " Ov P- 




1 1 1 1 
CO M Ov r^ 




rr -0- CO CO 




^r ■«- CO CO 




■«■ -9- CO CO 








c^ 




c^ 




Ov 








n 
1 




00 
1 




1 





! 





1 










M 




CO 





Vicl.-SelsK. Skrifter. I. M.-N. Kl. 1916. No. 9 



392 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



c 





















d) 




J3 


(U 





^ 



(L) (U 

<" a 

'So <u 



o > 

O rt 
►-■^ 

^ I-. 

o B 

Ml 3 



bfl/- 



IT) 



u 

3 (L) 






"'5 

m 





oo noo - -^-^lOO 


ON 




cotrOio-<)-«oc- 


NO 




- 1 Ci , n - 1 


1 










CO ^ CO -o 






- 1- « M 

1 1 1 > 






0\-«-MVO iomcT)r~ 


M 




lO" COCOCOCOOnCO 




ON 


" 1 " 1 " 1 - + 


1 










CO On 00 « 

1114: 






OWt^r^OO-CO 


C« 


CO 


dMCtiO-r-. 


+ 








ON 







1 


(T) N CO M 

1 + + + 






0^ 000 uDr^iOO\ 


•fl- 




coto'j-coco.or^co 




0" 


^" 1 " 1 " + " + 




o\ 


Tl- 0\ 0\ CO 

1 1 + ; 






c00NO>Ot~C((Mr~ 


On 




« tri cTi ^ t^co •* 


CO 


NO 


n a 1 w 1 >- 1 












0\ 


CO r- 10 
1 7 - 






COCOOO r-« 10 On 


0^ 1 




•o ►- >o -<*• C4 m - 


1 1 


10 




« f " 1 "^ i - + 




Oi 


CO M vo r- 






+ 7,4 






ci-*-i-MOcoc)r~ 


CO 




CTlOC0«lO-Tl-- 


4- 


•<)• 


C) ^ w 1 « 1 N 1 











■+ CO CO -^ 

; 1 1 1 






lor^ — vo Trr^" in 


•^ 




owo r- CO coi 0) H- 

- + -+"+- 1 


w 


M 


•f 










n CO r~ 

CI M , 1 
+ + ^ ' 






>0 a C> - O>00 NO 


01 




10 coco ClCO_.-J-« 

" 7 - 1 - + - + 


CO 


0) 


1 





1 






CO ON CO 






CO 1 1 " 

1 ' ^ + 






0--i-r-0>O0C0 


CO 




NO -<f On CO r~ M lo 1 




M 


-4-"+ -+ " 1 


+ 










in - in - 

41 ; + 1 






coco- u-)cococ--a- 


— 




-r 1 - NO >n in * 1 






- 1 « 1 ci j n 1 


1 





- 




0\ 


« CO « M 

1 T T ' 






nw TfNO COMCO 


c- 




CO inco CO CO - rr 


Cl 


0\ 


"+"+"+" 1 


+ 


00 


t^ ■* Tj- 






- CO " a 
+ + + 1 






ooiocOir-iocow 10 


CI 




00 _1_ UO lOCO r-00 CO 
«i-CO^ M_j_ -^ 




CO 

o\ 


+ 




N^ On 10 ^ 




^• 






■g c 


- - ^o 




« « c< - 


— 




^ ^ ^ ^ 


5 


a acS 


On w r^ CO 


«s 


^ 


NO NO . NO r~ 




go 


tn m (n m 




t— t 






-J 


On O^ On 


ON - Cf CO 




^ 


0000 




« 01 CO 





u. 



O-OO-J-r-TfOO 




CO CO CI •- Thco 


01 






+ 1 




CO NO in 




■0- 1 CO CO 




+ ' 1 1 




— -^\0 co-'^-r^cONO 




-NO « iocor~Trr- 


NO 


"+"-!■"+- + 


+ 






in in tn CI 




CO Cl CO CO 




+-+-++ 




omco>-Ori--.in 


^ 


coc^No co-'^-'^in 




" 1 " 7 '^ 1 " + 


1 






c^ CO « CO 




-H Cl « 




111 + 




00*~OCOC10n 


Cl 


K M « „ CO M 




« c. 1 o 1 -^ 









o CO in NO 




1 1 + 




■^cONO r^in— in — 




inNO NO in ■* t^ « CO 


NO 


- 1 - , PI 1 1 


( 






* r- - 




n Cl « n 

1 1 1 1 




o-a-OMOcir^in 




^1 U-) a CO in CO 




Cl 1 n 1 c^ ^ « ^ 


+ 






►H in On CO 




1 1 .+ ; 




n-ON'^'OO — r-"!/) 




ONCO— « lOvOvO 




" + + - 1 " 1 


1 






CO NO in CO 




NO « Cl N 




+ + 1 1 




Cl 00 r-00 - NO " ON 




r-c3NNO r~ioco C) « 




«+"+"+"+ 


+ 







- r- in 




" - " + 




+ + + 




r~ Tt- Cl IN CO - inNO 




NONOoocio ini t-- 
+ + ^ 1 


CO 


+ 


CO NO ON 00 




t- 0-- [- NO 




+ -t ; 7 




NO - CO COCO M- 


c-^ 


CO CO Tt- •«• r- r~ 


-^ 










0.1 -r „ + 




■f 




C- On - 




1 + + 




1 OnCO 01 00 COnO Tl- 


« 1 


|c ONO-OCOCI 


in 






1 1 1 1 


1 


•f in (JN 1 cjN 




NO TT - CO 




III! 




in-'-NOOinci — 





M-r^ool-r^r- 


CO 


"--""" 1 


+ 


+ + + 




M NO Th CO 




c~ c- c~ CO 




+ + + 1 




^00 c-oo CO NO in 


rj- 




C^ 


01 1 0. 1 01 1 O 1 


1 






CO r~ CO NO 




1 1 1 1 




-1- r(- NO - 




01 01 01 




— KK — — 


V 


^ ^ ^ ^ 






s 


03 CO -^ - 




00 1- r- r- 




in (/) Ul 01 




7n ON On 


CTi - 01 CO 




0000 









NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 393 



in r- tt -^ " -^ CI 

"+-+" + " I 



00 M 



t^oo •-« ^ ^ r^ O lO 

+ - 1 - I - 



O T^H-\ovO ^OT^•-. 



CO coco 

coo VO vO lO CO -^ 



. c^co « O O CO vO 



T*- « lOCO CO (N 



' + " 1 



1 - I " ' - I 




00 cor^-* r^C) io« 



a CO o ci Tj- 10 'O 10 
M locoio— — mco 
« I 0, I c. I - _^ 



in ■<*• r- t^ n n 00 
-- CO n n n - r- 



— 0\vO t-t \0 o 

10 CO o ■-' m CO 



X3 ^cooxcoONCon 

IDOO CO I CO CI o ■» 

„ , „ -r M I Ml 



— ^ CJ^ lO 
co^O " ■* 

" + '^ + 



- + 



- r-co 10 'f CO I 
CO CI 0^ CO vO I I 



10 10 CO \o 

1 *+' 



00 CO 0\ <M 

1 + 



■ in "3- IS 01 



01 C3\ 
^ o 



I I 



I + 



. . -. 01 -a-cn T^ 
CO mo CO 0\^ 
I "4- + 



<- CO 
VO CO 

+ 1 



-f + + 

• in -^ (Ti o CO CO m 
) I r> -^r -• O O w 



I-* Tt-QO 00 CO I 
00 vO -^^O CO CO I 

I " I " + 



TT-^coo O lOO r- 

tO -^ O^ — 00 1 c 

- I w I a ' - 



^ ^ 



^ ^ 



tf) ID U1 



m in ^ If) 



I I 



26 



394 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



bfi 






*j -4. en 
O ^ J- (U 
<U o *- 



o o 

CO (n 1> 

•■-' 1) ^ OT 

''-.Si'^ c "So 

•— '-^ ^ c 



145 


c 


en j; G 




tn 


(U 




a) 


M 


rt 




tn 


<u 


C 


tn 


a 




IUT3 




C 


> 


n 







be 




.2 


0) 




a! 






-3 


T3 






"(U 




x: 






G 


a. 


S 




lU 





H-1 








<-tH 




Ih 




tn 




l-> 





6 



(U 


c 


bn 







E 

3 


•a 


C 


tn 

.2 


Td 

• «-< 

+ 





C 




tuO 

c 
75 


<i) 


S"^ 




M-l 


in 

« 
<L) 
U 

Q. 

"c3 
•n 



C 




D 

e 




^1 

G te 
"in (U 


G 






^1 


(1) 


>. 


•n 




en 


Xi 







tn 


n 




<u 


.,-1 


-a 


_o 


<u 














<u 





(1; 


00 


T1 


c 
E 

3 


X 


>, 


(H 


a! 


E 






<+-l 


,0 







tn 





<j 


M-l 





C 


t— 1 


(O 


tn 


G 






Lh 






n1 


r! 


IC 


.2 


V 


to 



liO r: rt o <u 

< 




fc 



coco 

+ T 



CO o 
CO ■«• 

.1 I 



lO t^ O r~ ■* t~tX3 
coco en »o r~>o •<(■ 



I I I I I I I 



■ 10^ VO 

T T T 



O O CJ. c- ON o o 



I I I I I I I 



10 * - 00 
o t- t^ -a- 

n a 10 10 



I I I I 



vo 00 CO r~vO vo 10 



I/J O " t~ C~VO CO 

Ti- in c~»o m in m 

+++T T T T 



kO O CO O CO o o 



+ + + + I I 



00 in m o moo « 

o « - d CO •* in 



Cl 


n] 


^ 


10 





c^ 







X 


i-< 


in 




Tj-CO 


-• 


"^ 


*-■ 










n 





CI 


„ 





r-co 


U-) 




- 


" 




in 


m 


+ + 4 
CI in 


+ 




1 


1 





w 


m 


^ 


=0 







<j~> 


0- 


t~ 


r- 




•-■ 


*-< 










n 


m 


r^ 


^ 


r^ 


f^ 


co 


\o 


m 


« 




CO 


CO 


in 


+ 


-4- 


+ 


1 


1 


T 


T 



-00 0) <X3 01 <D - 
5 [^ C^VO C~10 10 



I I I I I 



-,:=s:c>>> 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 395 



































r^ 


n 












c^ 














^ 


'-' 



























<% 


CO 














1 


c« 

1 












i/> 




a 


r^ 


'^ 


00 










>o 


>o 


r-NO 


CO 






































CO 


3; 


■* 




n 


■9-00 




•vl-vot 


1 


1 


I 


) 


1 


1 


1 


r^ 


0\ T^ 


O\00 







•O 10 r-vo >0 « 


m 























M- 


CO 







c« 


n 


CO 


CO 


■d-vo 


VO 


1 


1 


M 
1 


1 


1 


1 


1 





















VO 

CO 





























1 




VO 

T 


CO 
T 








>r) 


-J- 


in 


Ov 


to 


0\ 


lO 




CO 


tn 


in 


■^ 






























N 


CO r- 


fO 














VO 


■«r 


■^ 


■^ 


+ + 1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




00 


coco 


•-• 


vn 


CO 




10 


lO 


CO 


« 


10 




Q 


























tn 


10 


CI 







r-00 




lOVO 1 




1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


T 









r-. 




OvCO 1 


COCO 


>o 


r- 


Ovvo 


in 


CI 

















lO 


n 


D 





n 









"■ 


■* 


10 


mvo i 


+ 


• 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


10 





m 


VO 


•^ 


M 







u-) 


CO 


•«- 


in in 


m 


M 














Vn 


10 


invo 


Th 


in 


r^ 


1 


10 

1 


T 


■vj- 

T 




CO 

1 







r— 


10 


tn 


10 


in 


n 




r* 


in 


covo 


VO 


VO 




















COCO 


VO 


Cl 





VO 




a 
1 


CO 
1 


10 

1 


T 


7 


T 


CO 


r- 


r^ 











VO 


10 <n 


a 


CI 






in 




















'O 


c<- 








m 















TT 


1 


1 


1 


1 






1 





10 


M 


10 





r* 







0\ CO 


covo 


mvo 1 


Q 

















cc 


ir 





Cl 





1/5 




ir 


« 


■«■ 




c<- 




















+ 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


o\ 


•r, 


•o 


u^ 


c^ 


to 


r^ 


« 


« 


VO 


■^ 


•vf- 


■* 






















If 





If 


If 


in 


r- 


CI 







a- 


a 


in 


1 


T 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




r- 


•^ 


n 


n 


Ov 


VO 


CO 


00 


CO 


in 






^ 
















Tt- 


CO covo 


m 




10 05 


« 


■■3 


■<d 




N 1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




1 






















> 








"- 


-' 


" 


>>>| 



Pi 



m 
00 

CO 

T 




r- 
C« CO 

00 r~ 

-*■ ^ 

»-i 

1 1 


CO ^ r~ 
c~ -.r in 

OvOO vO 
M - « 


c^ -a-oo O' 
CO 10 1" ■>*" 

in ^1- <3n in 

VO VO r~| 


1 1 M 1 1 1 


CO CI in CO in CO m 
CO ^ m ^)-vo in -t 

M CI 00 CO " Ov 
CO n " - VO VO CO 

1 T T T T "1 4- 


covo n 
10 Ov ci 

00 vp 
f CO r^ 

i 1 1 


0\ CO - 
■<*- r-CO "-3- 

« r- i-i in 
mvo t^vo 

T T T T 


CO in 

CO ^ CO 

r^ -1- in 

^ VO ^ 


C> r~ 
ri- .nvo m 

CJvvD VO CO 
r^ r^ r^ r^ 


1 1 1 + 1 1 1 


m CI r~ covo ■»- 
r~ T^ T^vo vo vo n- 

co m '-' cjv coco 
vo covo r-vo 

++ 1 T T T T 


00 r^ tI-CO CI On 

00 •-« CO lONO in 

>o \0 t- ^ 00 c« Cl 
'^ -^ r- m -^ 10 in 

+++T "\"" 

in 00 Th tnNO "^ tn 
NO NO '^ •-• c) tn -^ 

c^ CO n in CO CO 0) 
CO n in -^ Th in in 

++++T T T 


r-OD 00 
CO Ci - 

" m 

VO r- ►- 

1 1 T 


•9- in c^ ^ 
O -a- invo 

6 CO Ov -*• 
c) in ■«• in 

1 T T 11 


c- n 

-a- CT •*• 
°C1 « 

n -• 

++ T 


■ji- Ov M m 
- covo VO 

CO a in 
Oxvo VO VO 

1 T T T 


in ►"" VO in in CO ov 

VO coco n VO VO VO 

°ci Ov r-vo invo 
Tt CO CO -a- •*■ m 

+++ 1 T T "i 


T^ 0) -^ On CO On in 

in in in c^no m 

Tt- OnOO ►- CO On 

CO NO NO mm 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


in Ov m invo - c« 
ON TT i-" c» m 'O in 

COVO vo VO n CO 

w r>- covo VO VO 

+ 1 1 T T T T 


--S = 


>>>^ 





vO 


,_^ 


Ov cq 






> 






CJ 









Ov Cl 










> 


1 1 




CO " 













■■1- Ov 




a - 


, > 


1 1 




coco 




« -1 









M VO 




CO ■-• 


> 


I 1 








in 













VO T^ 




CO " 








1 1 




m CO 




CO - 




Q 




CO 




Tj- V. 












n Ov 




* 









00 




■*• r- 


t-H 


1 1 




t-vo 




■* . 


a 




c 


c t* 





m J 


« 


z^ 


w 





396 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. JO 



Table i6D. — Isobar directions and pressure gradients at different coast sta- 
tions. The numbers have the same significance as in table 12D. With 
respect to the significance of the isobar directions marked -|- and — for 
Stad and for Torungen, see the text. For Hamburg the isobar directions 
measured from the west are indicated by -|- on the south side and with — 
on the north side of this direction. This is also the case for Iceland (east 
and west) for March. 

^Excepting Stad at 62° 30' north latitude 5° east longitude. 

" Torungen at 58° 25' north latitude 8° 48' east longitude. 

^ Southerly Shetland Islands at 60° north, latitude 1° 20' west longitude. 

* East Coast Islands at 65° north latitude 14° west longitude. 

'At Reykjenes on the West Coast Islands at 64° north latitude 22° 30' 
west longitude. 

"At the West Coast Islands at 54° north latitude 10° west longitude. 

Dez ember. 



Station 


Mittl. 
Isobarenricht. 
u. Gradient 


1894 


1895 


1896 


1 
1897 1898 


1899 1900 


Stad 1 
Torungen 2 


S 42° W 221 
S 10 


+ 18° 154 
+ 48 

+ 85 66 
+ 66 


-15° 168 
— 43 

— 60 78 
-68 


+ ii8°2r4 —12° 210 +13° 240 

+ 188 -43i + 53 

— 30 100+39 115+76 154 

-50 (-72 -1-149 


— 15° 220 + 4° 250 

- 57 +17 

—60 181 +67 95 

-157 +88 



Januar. 



Station 


Mittl. 
Isobarenricht. 
u. Gradient 


1895 


1896 


1897 


1898 


1899 


1900 


1901 


Stad I 
Torungen 2 
Hamburg 


S 56° W 245 
S 10 


-36° 157 
- 92 

-69 173 
-152 


+ 23° 243 

+ 95 

+ 25 192 

+ 82 


— 37° 200 

— 120 

-95 21-3 

— 2t2 


+ 17° 343 —36° 222 —26° 235 
+ 100 -130 —103 

+ 95 154 -10 59 -63 167 
+ 154 — 10 -148 

+ I 184 + 2 . 157 +11 77 


+ 2° 278 
+ 10 

+ 61 79 
+ 69 

+ 24 138 



Februar. 



Stadi 


S 49^ 


W 


170 


-37° 50 


+ 14° 300 


-1-21° 194 


-13' 


250 


— 15° 100 


-6i° 334 


+ 81° 120 










- 30 


+ 72 


- -,- 70 




-5f 


- 26 


— 290 


+ 119 


Torungen^ 


S 10 







-69 215 


+ 92 77 


+ 47 147 


+ 28 


85 


-I-70 60 


— 79 200 


+ 12 63 










— 200 


+ 77 


+ 107 




+ 40 


+ 56 


— 196 


-t 13 


Shetland 3 




w 


106 








-16 


.i66 
-46 


+ 68 loi 
+ 93 


-141 115 
- 72 


-75 125 
— 121 


Thorshavn 


iN 79 


w 


71 








+ 3 


190 
+ 10 


+ 91 77 

+ 77 


-141 235 
-147 


— 62 125 
— no 


OstkQste 


N 33 





42 








-48 


qo 


+ 90 80 


— 148 250 


-64 48 


Islands^ 
















-67 


+ 80 


— 132 


— 43 


Reykja- 


S 24 


w 


59 








-19 


100 


+ 56 200 


+ 137 250 


-3 53 


nes* 
















— 32 


+ 166 


->- 170 


— 3 


Stornoway 


S 86 


w 


125 








-18 


304 
-94 


+ 74 "23 
+ 118 


+ 170 60 
+ 10 


-84 125 
-124 


Irland « 


S 80 


w 


137 








— 22 


210 

-79 


+ 68 158 
+ 146 




-85 70 

■ - 70 


Hamburg 














- 4 


'5° 


+ 30 78 


-^ 50 125 


-17 90 



Marz. 



Stadl 


S 48 = 


W 


130 


— 26° 117 


— 22° 192 


— 39° l82j-(-12° 170 


+ 87° 100 


+ 93° 


100 


— 26° 50 










-51 


— 72 


— 114 


-+-35 


+ 100 


+ 100 


— 22 


Torungen 2 


S 10 







— 12 60 


4.18 66 


-75 135 


-43 "I 


+ 75 118 


-38 


65 


— 70 66 










— 12 


+ 20 


— 130 


-75 


4 ii-t 


— 


40 


-62 


Shetland 3 


s 51 


W 


95 








-59 • 62 
-53 


— ti6 105 
— 95 


— 129 


98 

76 


+ I 36 



Thorshavn 


ii 59 


w 


55 








-48 85 
-63 


— III 40 
- 37 


-89 


78 
78 






OstkQste 


S 76 





46 








-98 59 


+ 160 53 


-48 


61 


-149 40 


Islands^ 
























Reykja- 


S 49 





99 








+ 79 91 


-1-170 102 


-1- la 


50 


+ 134 50 


nes = 
























Stornoway 


S 77 


w 


105 








-45 125 
-88 


-31 83 

— 43 


-107 


75 
73 


-3 29 
— 2 


Irland* 


S 86 


w 


"♦ 








-59 133 
— 114 


+ 6 121 
+ '3 


— 109 


59 
■56 


-9 4a 

^ 7 


Hamburg 

















— 17 160-80 


42 


+ 110 36 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 397 



1 90 1 


1902 


1903 


1904 


i9°5 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


-37° :6o 
-96 

- 7 143 
— 17 


4- 6° 270 
4-28 

+ 57 75 
4-63 


— 15° 300 +15° 190 

- 78 +49 

— 43 166 4-83 100 

— 113 4-99 


4-30° 270 

+ 135 

4-80 165 

4-162 


4-24° 240 
4 97 

4-60 71 
-1-61 


— 30° 220 

— 110 
-52 i8r 

— 143 







1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


-f-44° 214' — 10° 263 
41481 -46 

4-63 15614-53 86 
+ 137 +69 

— 21 2354-23 i6a 


— :6° 308 
- 85 

4-4S 139 
4 i03 

+ 37 154 


+ 7° 330 
4-40 

+ 95 83 
+ 83 

-17 167 


-5° 230 
— ao 

+ 55 92 
+ 75 

-i-i8 20H 


4-10° 222 
+ 38 

4-68 74 
4-69 

-25 170 


+ 14 222 
+ 54 

465 143 
4-130 

-6 154 


+ 8° 254 
+ 35 

+ 72 113 
4-107 


-15" 250 
-64 

4-48 90 
4-67 



4- 1° 


188 


4-29° 274 


-34 238 


4-27° 250 


— 20° 190 


4-21° 230 


4- 38° t93 


- 9° 150 


-17° 374 


4- 


3 


4-132 


— 139 


4- 114 


- 65 




4- 82 


4-118 




- 23 




- 80 


+ 43 


81 


+ 75 210 


- 50 170 


+ 75 127 


4- 48 140 


4-96 


87 


+ 60 i8a 


-40 


50 


+ 22 


153 


-4- 


55 


4-202 


-130 


4- 122 


-+- 104 




4- 86 


+ ■57 




- 32 




4- 57 


+ 42 


80 


+ 14 253 


+ 80 137 


4- 6 208 


— 32 125 





200 


— 17 200 


+ 3t 


75 


4-48 


200 


4- 


54 


4- 61 


4135 


4- 22 


— 66 







- 59 




+ 39 




4-149 







4-38 222 


4-152 64 


-t-14 180 


- 44 125 


4-21 


184 


- 4 187 


453 


129 


+ 57 


190 






+ 136 


+ 30 


+ 43 


- 87 




4- 66 


- t3 




+ 103 




4160 


-136 


53 


4-50 60 


+ 17T 160 


-65 70 


-125 125 


-29 


60 


— 70 69 










— 


37 


4- 46 


+ 25 


- 63 


— 102 




- 29 


- 65 










4- 100 


125 


4-49 no 


+ 89 133 


-33 100 


+ 24 125 


-25 


120 


— ri2 62 


- 6 


174 


4-96 


185 


4-123 


+ 83 


+ 133 


- 54 


+ 51 




+ 5' 


- 57 




4- 60 




4-i6a 


4-76 


80 


4-21 303 


+ 78 122 


- 4 270 


— 25 167 


4- 2 


180 


— 22 260 


+ 33 


103 






4- 


78 


4-109 


4- 119 


— 19 


— 70 




4- 6 


- 97 




+ 56 






4-80 


115 


4-20 286 


+ 15 143 


— 10 225 


— 29 210 


- 3 


210 


— 24 220 


4-28 


117 






4- 


"3 


4- 98 


+ 37 


— 39 


— 102 




— II 


- 90 




+ 55 






4-130 


80 


— a 320 


+ 43 117 


-17 143 


+ 38 143 


-18 


170 


— 20 222 


-50 


40 


+ 33 


167 



— 10- 170 


— io° 300 


— 18° 240 


-35° 170 


-4-82° 190 


■+■ 12° 


240 


— 52° 220 


-58° 


143 


4-12° 


261 


- 30 


- 51 


- 74 


- 97 




+ 19 




+ 50 


-173 


- 


-121 




+ 54 


-66 67 


4-56 244 


-38 154 


+ 7 133 


+ 34 


130 


+ 75 


100 


— 32 200 


-49 


238 


4-88 


77 


— 6t 


4- 202 


- 95 


+ 15 




+ 73 




4-96 


— 106 


- 


-180 




+ 77 


- 7 125 


4- 5 265 


4-16 166 


4-38 174 


-77 


'58 


— 22 


200 


4-66 125 




105 




167 


- 15 


+ 23 


4- 46 


f 107 




-154 




-75 


+ 114 










-174 87 


4- 9 140 


+ 25 154 


-t-81 120 


-63 


130 


- 4 


214 


457 138 


-151 




+ I 


182 


- 9 


4- 22 


4- 65 


4- I 19 




— 104 




-15 


4-118 








+ 3 


4-180 160 


— 160 143 


4-95 100 


4 146 150 


-75 


90 


-■-47 


100 


+ 133 153 


-152 


187 


+ 34 


145 


-4-162 310 


4175 200 


-*- loa 125 


4- 150 210 








+ 59 


i6a 


4- 150 160 


— 162 


181 


+ 5t 


145 


- 7 143 


-4-12 240 


4-33 166 


+ 48 135 


-37 


148 


+ 4 


ao6 


4-40 84 










- 17 


+ 50 


4- 90 


4-IOO 




- 89 




4-14 


+ 54 










° 154 


4-ia 250 
4 52 


-4-46 70 
+ 5° 


4-22 190 

4- 71 


-16 


125 

— 34 


+ 7 


182 

4-22 


4-4 120 
4- 8 










+ 15 118 


4-38 187 


4- 136 100 -t-68 95 


-25 


203 


— 10 


121 


4-90 150 


4-77 


91 


-15 


100 



398 

Juli. 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70 



Station 



Mittl. 

Isobarenricht. 

u. Graciient 



1895 



1896 



1897 



1899 



Stadi 
Torungen^ 



N 61° W 37 
N 53 W 65 



+38 91 

+56 



° +59° i°° 

o +86 

32 — 4 160 



95 

-32 

105 

-39 



+40° 87 

+ 56 

+ 8 56 

+8 



■5t 56 
-43 

■17 III 
-32 



+ 111° 77 
+ 75 



August. 



Stadi 


N 79° W 4a 


+ 44° 83 0° 





+ 79° 76+35° iii|- 4° 5°|-i9° 32 


+ 31° 95 






+ 58 





+ 74 


+64 — 3 —10 


+49 


Torungen^ 


N 82 W 53 


— 10 98—9 


71 


+ 67 83+20 77I-48 57i+46 31 


+24 67 


1 


-17 


— II 


+ 76 


+ 261 -42I +22 


+ 27 



190a 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 




— 61 ° 71 
-62 

-20° 74 
-25 


— 146° 59 +34° 55+29° 53 
-33 +31 +26 

+ 47 57 +14 IOC — 8 9: 
+ 42 +24 —13 


+ 74° 84 
+ 81 

+41 53 
+ 35 


-71° 83-83° 13 
-78 -13 

— 12 100 4-27 15 
— 21 +7 





-74° 46 


+ 14° 66 


-59° 49 


+46° 40 


-4 


Sol 








-44 


4-16 


—42 


+ 29 




- el 








-34 47 


4- I 56 


-19 70 


+ 43 51 


-4° 43+6 


106 —32° 


50 






-26 


+ I 


-23 


+35 


— sl 


-+-11 


—26 







Table 17D. — Deviations of the air-pressure differences over the North Atlantic 
between the Azores maximum and the Iceland air-pressure minimum in 
tenths of a millimeter. 





I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


Jahres- 
Mittel 


Mittel 


24.9 


24.1 


19-5 


15-9 


t2.4 


14-3 


15.2 


I5-I 


16.5 


18.0 


20.5 


24-5 


18.4 


1883 
























-45 
55 




84 

85 
86 
87 
88 
89 


-9 


39 


45 


-79 


-4 


37 


-32 


29 


35 





-45 


5 9 


31 


-41 


-15 


21 


-4 


17 


— 12 


-51 


15 


-80 


—45 


-8s 


— 20.8 


— 29 


— 81 


-35 


— 59 


-24 


-3 


8 


29 


-25 





— 5 


— 25 


— 20.8 


51 


— "i 


-55 


-39 


— 4 


-23 


8 


-51 


-25 





— 45 


-8s 


— 22.4 


-ti9 


— 101 


-55 


-S9 


— 24 


17 


28 


-31 


-45 


— 40 


35 


35 


-25.8 


-29 


— 41 


-55 


21 


5^^ 


37 


-32 


29 


-65 


— 20 


— 5 


55 


— 4.1 


90 


91 


— 21 


25 


21 


16 


17 


48 


9 


15 


20 


55 


-35 


21.8 


9i 


-69 


19 


-15 


-39 


— 4 


-43 


-32 


9 


35 


60 


-25 


35 


-5-8 


92 


-29 


— 141 


-95 


—39 


-44 


17 


8 


— II 


35 


-60 


— 25 


— 45 


-35-8 


93 


— 149 


'9 


5 


I 


-4 


— 23 


8 


-51 


35 





— 25 


15 


— 14.1 


94 


II 


99 


45 


41 


30 


57 


8 


— II 


-25 


-60 


75 


—25 


20.9 


95 
96 




-41 


5 


— 19 


3t' 


-43 


— 12 


9 


— 5 


—40 


15 


-45 


— 22.4 


— 9 


19 


45 


41 


16 


-23 


28 


9 


-25 





— 25 


75 


12.6 


97 
98 


-89 


19 


45 


101 


16 


-43 


— 12 


29 


15 


— 20 


— 45 


15 


2.6 


91 


19 


— 75 


81 


-24 


-23 


— 12 


29 


15 





— 5 


15 


9.3 


99 


-9 


39 


-75 


-39 


-64 


17 


8 


9 


15 


20 


75 


-85 


— 7.4 




31 




-35 


-19 


16 


17 


-32 


— II 


35 





55 


55 


2.6 


02 


3t 

31 


— 21 

-81 


5 
-15 


I 
-59 


-24 
16 


-3 
-23 


8 
— 12 


9 
-31 


35 
-65 


20 
20 


15 
15 


-25 
15 


4.3 
-15.8 


03 




119 


145 


— 19 


-4 


-23 


— 12 


29 


15 


20 


35 


35 


29-3 




71 


19 


-15 


lOI 


30 


17 


8 


9 


35 


40 


— 5 


— 5 


25.9 


05 
06 


31 


79 


«5 


I 


3b 


17 


— 12 


29 


-25 


— 40 


35 


55 


24-3 




71 


19 


5 


41 


-4 


-3 


28 


— II 


15 


40 


-6=i 


15 


12.6 


07 
08 


11 


39 


85 


21 


-24 


17 


-32 


9 


15 


20 


35 


55 


20.9 


31 


59 


45 


21 


16 


-3 


8 


-31 


— 5 


60 


— 25 


35 


17.6 


10 


31 
II 


119 


-35 

-15 


I 

-59 


— 44 
-4 


-3 


48 


9 


-45 


40 


-45 


-65 


-14.1 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 399 



Table 18L.— Deviations of the air temperatures in the four regions of the 
United States of America in hundredths of a degree Centigrade. The 
mean temperatures are computed for all the regions from the time interval 
1883 to 1913. 





I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


Jahres- 
Mittel 


Mittel 


11.50 


12.76 


16.38 


19.67 


23-30 


26.20 


27.41 


27.29 


25.49 


20.57 


16.23 


12.54 


19.95 


1874 


72 


57 


.157 


39 


81 


102 


9 


160 


I 


-18 


44 


90 


66 


75 


— 222 


-92 


— 21 


-172 


70 


91 


120 


-79 


— 160 


— 146 


94 


229 


-24 


76 


283 


'74 


-188 


27 


-8 


58 


98 


43 


-55 


-124 


-246 -459 


-33 


77 


— 122 


— 10 


-94 


-39 


-24 


86 


ir4 


71 


-5 


-7 


-228 


-37 


-25 


78 


— 228 


-98 


217 


144 


70 


86 


136 






— I 


-56 


-315 


-5 


79 


— 144 


-ri5 


117 


— 45 


42 


8 


98 


-96 


-61 


160 


77 


212 


21 


80 


489 


174 


84 


117 


142 


30 


9 


-44 


-154 


-113 




— aio 


45 


81 
8a 
83 


— 22a 


-76 


— 216 


-84 


103 


ao2 


209 


88 


51 


215 


-17 


141 


30 


5 


aia 


— no 


106 


131 


80 


76 


4 


-61 


187 


50 


196 


73 


84 


-350 


201 


84 


-72 


25 


-87 


70 


-62 


62 


165 


-117 


7 


-6 


85 


-139 


— 198 


— 261 


39 


-86 


-25 


9 


-29 


-61 


— 207 


— 112 


-165 


— 103 


86 


-439 


-198 


-316 


-156 


-13 


-36 


-63 


-29 


— 21 


-51 


-173 


-237 


-161 


87 


— 200 


321 


-16 


27 


31 


-92 


14 


4 


-27 


-29 


-17 


[12] 


a 


88 


45 


185 


— I2X 


150 


-24 


— 20 


-8 


— 51 


-i88 


-80 


— 112 


18 


-17 


89 


72 


-43 


-76 


77 


-75 


-70 


31 


-74 


-77 


-29 


-90 


530 


15 


90 


489 


424 


-99 


66 


-19 


41 


3 


-45 


-94 


-7 


132 


68 


80 


91 


-33 


319 


-138 


-6 


-97 


58 


-46 


-51 


-38 


-91 


-73 


168 


— a 


9a 


-162 


196 


-194 


66 


-24 


-9 


-35 


-40 


-43 


54 


-56 


-15 


— 32 


93 


— 189 


163 


-71 


194 


9 


-3 


54 


— 12 


135 


43 


— 12 


207 


43 


?4 


267 


46 


113 


117 


3 


-58 


109 


-62 


7 


71 


— 17 


112 


59 


95 


17 


-465 


— 10 


-6 


-46 


2 


-8 


— I 


106 


-40 


10 


72 


-36 


96 


II 


52 


-60 


155 


176 


47 


43 


109 


46 


60 


232 


112 


82 


97 


-39 


246 


312 


33 


-35 


97 


70 


15 


13 


— 196 


783 


101 


117 


98 


278 


96 


151 


— 106 


76 


69 


— 2 


-7 


51 


— 40 


[-95] 


-65 


34 


99 


89 


-i8r 


35 


-84 


187 


41 


3 


93 


-61 


-35 


21 


-54 


5 


1900 


-28 


-132 


— no 


16 


14 


-25 


-8 


55 


135 


227 


6r 


24 


19 


01 


100 


— 170 


-94 


— 195 


-24 


53 


65 


4 


-49 


54 


-151 


— 192 


-50 


oa 


— III 


-399 


I 


-6 


164 


108 


37 


93 


-61 


76 


199 


-43 


13 


03 


•^50 


a 


117 


-84 


— 102 


— 126 


-30 


26 


-94 


-51 


— 162 


— 232 


-66 


04 


— 144 


96 


168 


-95 


-58 


-14 


-86 


-68 


68 


87 


— 90 


-59 


-16 


°5 


-ai7 


-387 


157 


5 


147 


58 


-52 


— I 


62 


21 


77 


-215 


-29 


06 


=3 


— 132 


— 232 


50 


-35 


58 


-174 


-7 


90 


— 140 


16 


63 


-35 


07 


394 


52 


390 


-195 


-130 


-47 


14 


49 


18 


-18 


-151 


-54 


27 


08 


— 44 


-154 


257 


177 


— 2 


— 3 


-30 


-23 


-72 


-'51 


38 


123 


10 


09 


167 


68 


12 


— 12 


-86 


35 


31 


66 


— 21 


5 


199 


-359 


9 


10 


-39 


— ao3 


179 


-90 


-97 


— 103 


-46 


10 


62 


27 


— 146 


-237 


-57 


II 


333 


235 


lOI 


16 


— 2 


135 


-80 


-23 


190 


149 


-157 


74 


73 


12 


— 244 


— 310 


-172 


— lOI 


53 


— 132 


14 


21 


51 


104 


— 190 


-15 


-77 


T3 


333 


-70 


17 


-90 


-46 


-70 


37 


26 


-116 


-151 


94 


[123] 


— I 



400 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



Table i8La. — States on the Pacific coast. Mielke's region No. 10. 





I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


Vill 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


Jahres- 
Mittei 


Mittel 


8.06 


9 00 


10.70 


12.45 


14.65 


17.10 


19-31 


19.30 


»7-59 


14-77 


11.68 


9.00 


12.88 


1874 






-181 


-717 


63 


-115 


— 109 


-158 


-75 


40 


-35 


II 




75 




22 


-64 


99 


— 4 






-80 


— 30 


90 


49 


200 




16 


— II 






— 123 


-54 


45 




-158 


-26 


lOI 


65 


44 




•77 


250 


267 


58 


10 


-59 




-42 


— 102 


-31 


— II 


no 


128 




78 


194 


178 


163 


39 


57 


— 4 


— 176 


— 130 


— 109 


-49 


32 


-72 


10 


79 


-156 


66 


141 


55 


-88 


7 


-114 


9 


-31 


-94 


-151 


-139 


41 


80 


-117 


— 239 


— 220 


-45 


7 


12 


119 


-113 


-42 


-27 


-273 


23 


-76 


81 
82 


71 


189 


74 


232 


152 


45 


— 109 


-41 


— 9 


— 160 


— 129 


II 


27 


83 


-173 


— 205 


219 


— 12 


135 


379 


369 


220 


— 120 


— 260 


-51 


-17 


40 


84 


27 


-89 


19 


no 


235 


145 


164 


259 


-37 


-27 


71 


178 


88 


85 


33 


50 


325 


232 


224 


79 


197 


64 


130 


156 


49 


133 


139 


86 


22 


250 


-42 


44 


202 


240 


242 


243 


58 


-94 


— 140 


167 


99 


87 


138 


-256 


136 


-6 


12 


29 


-54 


-80 


25 


62 


10 


[II] 


a 


88 


— 211 


III 


-31 


7 66 


23 


29 


-9 


47 


191 


79 


— 29 


77 


37 


89 


27 


156 


241 


194 


119 


140 


69 


53 


158 


118 


98 


-61 


109 


90 


— 244 


— III 


—20 


21 


185 


7 


80 


109 


85 


118 


204 


144 


48 


91 


160 


-445 


58 


27 


52 


18 


108 


203 


124 


145 


127 


-83 


41 


92 


122 


106 


91 


-72 


57 


-49 


-87 


25 


13 


23 


82 


— 17 


25 


93 


— II 


-83 


-115 


-145 


-43 


— 104 


-92 


-35 


-131 


-133 


-118 


61 


-79 


94 


-117 


— 189 


-142 


-6 


-26 


-160 


— 20 


81 


41 


-16 


60 


-105 


-50 


95 


-67 


122 


-59 


-23 


18 


23 


-76 


-69 


-^109 


40 


-73 


-78 


-a8 


96 


144 


184 


3 


— 206 


— 104 


29 


86 


14 


-48 


6 


-185 


128 


4 


97 


5 


-28 


-259 


no 


196 


I 


-42 


42 


-9 


-60 


-95 


— n 


-13 


98 


-139 


128 


-131 


61 


-105 


23 


-54 


9 


-15 


— II 


-84 


-83 


-33 


99 


100 


-56 


-82 


-39 


— 226 


-82 


-87 


— 202 


85 


-94 


116 





-47 


1900 


149 


83 


174 


-34 


63 


40 


-36 


-135 


-75 


-82 


49 


83 


23 


01 





61 


58 


-139 


-76 


-115 


— 136 


-13 


-142 


134 


76 


22 


-23 


02 


-40 


III 


— 109 


-67 


-59 


— 10 


-92 


-69 


2 


6 


-90 


-23 


-37 


03 


55 


-128 


-87 


— 112 


-59 


29 


-198 


-97 


-37 


79 


27 


39 


-41 


04 


44 


-45 


— 109 


66 


29 


34 


— 114 


-47 


63 


67 


160 


50 


17 


05 


116 


133 


174 


83 


-93 


-60 


8 


-35 


-4 


-49 


-90 


-72 


9 


06 


105 


189 


-26 


— 112 


248 


-77 


57 


-53 


— 20 


90 


-79 


-5 


26 


07 


— 162 


206 


-131 


44 


-4 


— 77 


-31 


— 102 


-92 


67 


49 


61 


-14 


08 


89 


-45 


3 


6i 


-165 


— 121 


46 


-69 


-37 


-T16 


-7 


-178 


-45 


09 


— II 


-17 


-115 


16 


— 298 


-55 


-125 


-80 


a 


-193 


-46 


— 200 


-94 


10 


-128 


-94 


125 


i05 


108 


-115 


-48 


-"3 


-70 


62 


-51 


-50 


— 22 


II 


5 


-161 


80 


-123 


-137 


-115 


-9 


-113 


— 126 


— 22 


-35 


— 100 


-71 


12 


133 


133 


-131 


-178 


7 


-32 


— 109 


-119 


-15 


-133 


10 


-61 


-41 


13 


-162 


-67 


— 120 


-61 


-32 


-77 


-14 


53 


96 


29 


-7 


[-5] 


-31 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 40I 



Table i8Lb. — Interior states. Mielke's region No. 16. 





I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


Jahres 
Mittel 


Mittel 


—2.76 


—1.63 


3-64 


963 


15.05 


20.12 


22.96 


22.07 


17.99 


"•59 


4.88 


—0.30 


10.27 


1883 


-274 


-137 


-42 


— 207 


-144 


32 


10 


— I 


-71 


— 126 


68 


147 


-62 


84 


-74 


74 


-3 


-57 


39 


71 


-90 


-7 


29 


135 


106 


-42 


15 


85 


-218 


-143 


-97 


-119 


-44 


-95 


48 


— lOI 


-49 


-65 


lOI 


130 


-54 


86 


— 213 


140 


-36 


70 


117 


71 


71 


54 


—32 


102 


— 216 


-142 


— I 


87 


-52 


13 


53 


-7 


206 


38 


121 


-35 


-43 


— 126 


-5 


-3 


13 


88 


-346 


157 


— 192 


131 


-72 


16 


— 2 


-40 


-82 


-176 


-38 


91 


-46 


89 


65 


— 120 


258 


170 


28 


-51 


32 


15 


-93 


-65 


-82 


441 


50 


90 


87 


252 


— 120 


109 


-33 


82 


60 


-96 


-60 


— 42 


112 


158 


42 


91 


232 


63 


-125 


115 


-27 


-45 


— 146 


-29 


157 


47 


-55 


224 


34 


92 


-85 


307 


8 


-52 


-94 


38 


15 


65 


118 


85 


— 44 


— 148 


18 


93 


-235 


-93 


— 42 


-46 


— III 


82 


65 


10 


23 


35 


*-49 


74 


—24 


94 


176 


-43 


286 


137 


73 


60 


82 


82 


12 


"3 


23 


191 


99 


95 


— 113 


-170 


— 20 


181 


73 


10 


-107 


37 


107 


— 103 


-55 


36 


— 10 


96 


248 


269 


— 108 


176 


195 


99 


37 


no 


-82 


— 42 


-77 


24 


71 


97 


20 


157 


— 70 


59 


67 


-56 


54 


10 


195 


185 


40 


-87 


48 


98 


126 


280 


164 


37 


I 


99 


65 


126 


129 


-76 


— 194 


— 192 


47 


99 


126 


— 248 


— 192 


76 


-16 


44 


37 


10 


7 


97 


251 


-81 


9 


1900 


293 


— 104 


-47 


126 


106 


71 


-18 


no 


7 


224 


-32 


30 


64 


01 


126 


— 148 


-14 


— 52 


12 


-40 


232 


76 


-88 


130 


-16 


-142 


6 


02 


37 


-48 


86 


-7 


67 


— 112 


-74 


— lOI 


— 121 


69 


156 


— 148 


-16 


03 


65 


-170 


169 


-19 


34 


— 140 


— 74 


-74 


— 105 


52 


-105 


-231 


-50 


04 


-168 


-131 


8 


— 141 


12 


-79 


-118 


-74 


— 5 


19 


lOI 


-98 


-56 


05 


-168 


— 270 


219 


-35 


-94 


-45 


-79 


49 


51 


-"5 


-32 


-53 


-48 


06 


243 


35 


-286 


— 169 


-27 


-79 


-79 


54 


112 


-42 


-82 


24 


— 21 


07 


15 


135 


236 


-235 


-288 


— 201 


-63 


— lOI 


-77 


-37 


-32 


102 


-46 


08 


148 


41 


136 


— 219 


-83 


-90 


10 


-46 


34 


-59 


I 


-31 


-13 


09 


109 


124 


-58 


-152 


-127 


— I 


-85 


71 


-77 


-87 


218 


— 442 


— 42 


10 


— 24 


-154 


-3 


115 


-77 


-6 


48 


-46 


40 


58 


-82 


— 120 


— 21 


II 


176 


130 


153 


-52 


151 


116 


-2 


-29 


90 


-76 


— 266 


30 


35 


12 


-380 


-87 


— 286 


— 2 


45 


-79 


-63 


— 118 


-99 


-42 


68 


19 


-85 


13 


65 


-154 


-42 


59 


12 


77 


15 


15 


-32 


-70 


229 


230 


34 



402 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



Table i8Lc.— States on the Atlantic coast. Mielke's region No. 17. 





1 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


Jahres- 
Mittel 


Mittel 


1.87 


2.0a 


6 21 


11.32 


16.75 


21.12 


2350 


22.79 


1987 


14.16 


849 


3-54 


12.64 


1883 


-98 


231 


-215 


-32 


-25 


121 


56 


— 7 


-93 


IS 


107 


"3 


14 


84 


-154 


370 


51 


-65 


14 


-34 


-72 


-18 


146 


128 


23 


96 


33 


85 


19 


-280 


-382 


-4 


-92 


5 


61 


-7 


-87 


-60 


18 


29 


-65 


86 


-T93 


-113 


-88 


57 


-14 


-90 


-39 


-5' 


41 


40 


45 


-193 


-50 


87 


-15 


248 


-138 


-82 


147 


-6 


139 


-40 


— 148 


-60 


-66 


[-67J 


— 7 


88 


-215 


137 


— 210 


-38 


-81 


38 


-150 


-29 


— 193 


-249 


12 


-37 


-85 


89 


302 


— 108 


40 


85 


97 


49 


-50 


-62 


-26 


-144 


145 


446 


65 


90 


485 


498 


— 10 


62 


31 


116 


-33 


-7 


41 


I 


107 


— 126 


97 


91 


152 


370 


-93 


96 


-97 


21 


-150 


60 


130 


-99 


-49 


363 


59 


92 


13 


154 


-154 


I 


-19 


99 


-6 


93 


-37 


-27 


-43 


-32 


4 


93 


-409 


87 


-99 


40 


-36 


10 


44 


15 


-70 


56 


— 21 


74 


-26 


94 


ig6 


48 


296 


12 


64 


38 


22 


-40 


124 


73 


-116 


85 


67 


95 


— 20 


-369 


-65 


— 10 


-19 


99 


-83 


99 


174 


-172 


84 


"3 


-14 


96 


-65 


81 


-165 


146 


231 


— I 


56 


99 


— 4 


-105 


268 


-76 


39 


97 


-76 


170 


129 


29 


-31 


-40 


39 


10 


— 4 


95 


62 


79 


39 


98 


135 


87 


296 


-115 


-8 


10 


33 


1 10 


113 


367 


-14 


-15 


83 


99 


7 


— 196 


— 4 


-32 


47 


121 





54 


-48 


84 


51 


63 


13 


1900 


69 


— 24 


-143 


51 


-19 


32 


83 


199 


174 


240 


145 


-15 


66 


01 


-15 


-258 


7 


-149 


-64 


21 


III 


54 


35 


— 10 


-293 


-71 


-53 


02 


-131 


— 180 


173 


' I 


31 


-51 


-17 


-68 


-43 


56 


257 


-98 


-6 


°3 


-15 


159 


357 


7 


31 


-245 


— 22 


— 112 


-54 


84 


— 205 


— 282 


-35 


04 


-365 


-285 


-54 


— 160 


64 


-62 


-67 


-73 


-59 


-138 


-199 


— 282 


— 140 


05 


— 270 


-396 


51 


-4 


47 


-51 





-85 


-70 


-16 


-77 


2 


-73 


06 


246 


-24 


- 221 


68 


-14 


44 


-61 


127 


130 


-49 


— 21 


— no 


10 


07 


130 


— 246 


207 


— 276 


— 203 


-179 


6 


-57 


46 


— 210 


-71 


68 


-65 


08 


-15 


— 196 


185 


107 


69 


16 


56 


-57 


-26 


6 


23 


29 


16 


09 


124 


270 


-38 


29 


—44 


66 


— 100 


-62 


— 104 


— 144 


162 


-243 


-7 


10 


13 


-63 


301 


157 


-325 


— lOI 


28 


-62 


13 


90 


— 216 


-37' 


-45 


11 


141 


42 


— 104 


-99 


175 


44 


72 


15 


-37 


17 


-166 


213 


-26 


12 


— 426 


— 208 


— I2r 


62 


58 


-45 


-17 


-79 


41 


84 


-5 


168 


-41 


13 


463 


— 2 


212 


62 


-14 


-34 


50 


— 12 


— 120 


62 


68 


[67] 


67 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 403 



Table 19M. — Monthly means of the daily variations of the magnetic declina- 
tion in Christiania in hundredths of a minute. 



Jahr 


I 


II 


III IV 


V 


VI 


VII VIII IX X 


XI 


XII 


Summe 


Jahres- 
Mittel 


i860 


461 


939 


1374 


997 


896 


1143 


HI3 


884 


815 


767 


539 


291 


10 1 09 


842 


61 


277 


8i6 


933 


1265 


1069 


1 106 


876 


1026 


582 


6ir 


868 


346 


9375 


781 


6a 


383 


487 


781 


926 


701 


1024 


977 


790 


777 


833 


326 


245 


8250 


688 


63 


386 


597 


962 


990 


957 


980 


893 


867 


606 


640 


343 


165 


8386 


699 


64 


358 


499 


818 


971 


904 


896 


922 


708 


43t 


623 


192 


95 


7417 


618 


65 


130 


468 


953 


893 


839 


889 


693 


719 


606 


434 


93 


180 


6897 


575 


66 


333 


570 


550 


814 


860 


875 


813 


699 


415 


356 


329 


232 


6846 


571 


67 


235 


504 


786 


842 


695 


86i 


875 


764 


552 


342 


221 


153 


6830 


569 


68 


308 


433 


868 


'055 


754 


,933 


927 


9:4 


545 


501 


384 


344 


7966 


664 


69 


33=i 


699 


845 


1074 


838 


1201 


1 1 70 


953 


884 


689 


517 


204 


9409 


783 


70 


406 


627 


1142 


1293 


1428 


1277 


1387 


1157 


942 


1020 


722 


508 


11909 


99a 


71 


610 


847 


1225 


'377 


1078 


1355 


1256 


1233 


972 


878 


593 


419 


11843 


987 


72 


670 


766 


1024 


■349 


lot I 


1239 


1 141 


1085 


1079 


821 


567 


306 


1 1058 


922 


73 


323 


606 


1094 


1276 


892 


89 t 


1057 


991 


783 


613 


430 


315 


9274 


781 


74 


399 


628 


871 


1037 


902 


94° 


991 


845 


744 


590 


411 


192 


8553 


7'3 


75 


145 


309 


787 


too. 


762 


923 


768 


778 


551 


330 


230 


170 


6758 


563 


76 


244 


220 


627 


838 


603 


852 


902 


760 


536 


523 


292 


181 


6578 


548 


77 


248 


342 


537 


712 


7t8 


825 


834 


772 


512 


460 


221 


48 


6229 


519 


78 


60 


297 


604 


757 


679 


926 


845 


753 


579 


342 


197 


115 


6254 


521 


79 


196 


330 


686 


755 


741 


857 


835 


837 


575 


423 


233 


170 


6738 


562 


80 


278 


415 


694 


981 


773 


92 [ 


853 


915 


773 


723 


382 


lot 


7809 


651 


8r 


274 


488 


848 


933 


793 


968 


949 


912 


942 


661 


305 


316 


8389 


699 


82 


279 


508 


884 


1236 


1 1 10 


902 


803 


900 


852 


524 


548 


208 


8754 


729 


83 


326 


491 


943 i 1088 


808 


950 


10 t I 961 


805 


827 


505 


256 


8971 


748 


84 


469 


771 


1075 


1174 


951 


1060 


883 


794 


858 


799 


483 


280 


9597 


800 


85 


364 


430 


896 


1049 


803 


IIOO 


1030 


777 


692 


664 


408 


248 


8461 


7°: 


86 


475 


581 


966 


899 


8r9 


780 


905 


804 


641 


553 


176 


87 


7686 


641 


87 


298 


313 


561 


758 


652 


749 


Q04 


765 


366 


527 


266 


2ro 


6369 


531 


88 


221 


315 


670 


752 


68a 


8gi 


849 


768 


497 


538 


126 


196 


6505 


543 


89 


155 


379 


550 


712 


693 


775 


791 


760 


5t6 


494 


139 


137 


6ioi 


508 


90 


230 


459 


647 


757 


608 


740 


759 


612 


546 


.464 


243 


256 


6321 


527 


91 


273 


395 


641 


5Q5 


918 


838 


966 


905 


616 


700 


481 


218 


7546 


629 


92 


357 


480 


999 


986 


742 


1076 


971 


931 


698 


771 


480 


328 


8819 


735 


93 


346 


676 


1090 


1329 


1150 


1281 


1 140 


1187 


956 


86 1 


527 


455 


10994 


qi8 


94 


462 


757 


994 


iigi 


1078 


999 


996 


1 160 


886 


648 


390 


372 


9931 


828 


95 


321 


482 


899 


1077 


1022 


1225 


1057 


850 


802 


580 


321 


209 


8741 


728 


96 


268 


547 


883 


1023 


893 


796 


884 


845 


821 


461 


288 


211 


7917 


660 


97 


214 


452 


800 


952 


800 


740 


859 


816 


635 


467 


202 


227 


7161 


597 


98 


189 


234 


639 


629 


799 


919 


797 


796 


623 


541 


230 


218 


66ri 


551 


99 


31 


372 


630 


837 


674 


876 


697 


75t 


658 


500 


279 


82 


6383 


532 


1900 


112 


331 


632 


735 


679 


851 


747 


798 


505 


471 


157 


181 


6195 


516 


01 


204 


281 


635 


749 


765 


779 


778 


654 


507 


466 


151 


99 


6it3 


5°9 


02 


270 


156 


420 


537 


569 


750 


753 


687 


425 


379 


203 


168 


5317 


443 


03 


319 


405 


515 


839 


783 


994 


822 


852 


604 


405 


210 


95 


6843 


570 


04 


74 


355 


773 


943 


735 


1069 


855 


996 


795 


703 


304 


200 


7802 


650 


05 


.358 


650 


852 


936 


ti39 


840 


1062 


879 


784 


783 


612 


294 


9189 


766 


06 


400 


744 


1074 


997 


835 


952 


1032 


954 


59t 


664 


293 


165 


8701 


725 


07 


196 


623 


750 


882 


799 


929 


791 


781 


940 


807 


293 


97 


7888 


657 


08 


80 


406 


684 


947 


706 


829 


903 


785 


940 


554 


235 


165 


7234 


603 


09 


248 


220 


654 


1052 


805 


872 


753 


801 


710 


576 


3i8 


174 


7183 


599 


10 


323 


281 


677 


784 


666 


772 


706 


723 


434 


428 


213 


85 


6092 


508 


11 


214 


372 


553 


783 


688 


641 


830 


716 


563 


373 


51 


-69 


5715 


476 


12. 


-56 


330 


669 


784 


671 


658 


811 


716 


484 


454 


96 


160 


5777 


481 


13 


298 


408 


702 


778 


661 


713 


765 


728 


592 


459 


240 


246 


6590 


549 



404 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. ycy 



Table 20S. — Monthly means of the daily numbers in tenths (that is 85 = 8.5 
and 147=: 14.7) of the solar prominences. First according to observa- 
tions at the Osservatori del Collegio Romano, second according to obser- 
vations in Palermo, third according to observations in Catania. 



Jahr 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


vn 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


Summe 


Jahres. 
Mittel 


1871 










147 


154 


^53 


154 


147 


144 


138 


156 






72 


140 


137 


148 


121 


119 


114 


119 


120 


108 


94 


114 


122 


1456 


121 


73 


100 


105 


90 


105 


96 


84 


85 


67 


78 


64 


75 


77 


1026 


86 


74 


64 


76 


80 


73 


73 


63 


64 


85 


86 


93 


6a 


51 


870 


73 


75 


52 


67 


62 


55 


45 


38 


50 


60 


74 


69 


60 


54 


686 


57 


76 


73 


51 


52 


64 


60 


43 


54- 


55 


64 


49 


58 


43 


666 


56 


77 


54 


61 


47 


52 


56 


37 


52 


39 


42 


3" 


35 


34 


539 


45 


78 


27 


30 


40 


35 


23 


23 


35 


36 


36 


38 


5 


14 


342 


29 


79 


34 


30 


24 


26 


37 


17 


32 


26 


47 


59 


58 


33 


423 


35 


80 


26 


48 


62 


51 


51 


89 


91 


71 


70 


87 


59 


78 


783 


65 


81 


72 


89 


92 


118 


122 


108 


108 


124 


143 


134 


116 


lOI 


1327 


III 


82 


96 


111 


131 


120 


89 


123 


124 


100 


124 


118 


99 


100 


1335 


III 


83 


91 


95 


64 


98 


92 


92 


"5 


91 


80 


104 


86 


87 


1095 


91 


84 


76 


94 


136 


119 


113 


126 


117 


129 


104 


130 


91 


85 


1320 


no 


85 


68 


102 


87 


97 


no 


117 


105 


97 


118 


100 


106 


86 


1 193 


99 


86 


84 


69 


51 


71 


60 


6r 


85 


69 


80 


69 


72 


78 


859 


72 


87 


64 


71 


63 


71 


71 


90 


98 


94 


95 


63 


no 


83 


973 


81 


88 


85 


81 


103 


120 


75 


88 


76 


80 


69 


76 


45 


41 


939 


78 


89 


45 


77 


73 


41 


12 


9 


21 


32 


38 


25 


21 


17 


411 


34 


90 


19 


17 


22 


19 


16 


24 


21 


27 


29 


8i 


21 


34 


330 


28 


91 


46 


76 


61 


76 


46 


56 


84 


68 


93 


98 


57 


65 


826 


69 


92 


64 


70 


81 


78 


77 


106 


103 


98 


III 


90 


93 


95 


1066 


89 


93 


81 


90 


91 


116 


65 


58 


62 


87 


68 


58 


50 


55 


891 


74 


94 


60 


71 


81 


50 


59 


64 


47 


52 


55 


46 


46 


34 


665 


55 


95 


26 


53 


69 


71 


79 


70 


78 


77 


60 


45 


51 


'54 


733 


61 


96 


52 


58 


46 


33 


41 


47 


43 


40 


38 


69 


56 


38 


561 


47 


97 


37 


45 


54 


39 


33 


40 


26 


40 


52 


49 


50 


30 


495 


41 


98 


27 


26 


24 


34 


11 


30 


21 


29 


48 


41 


20 


32 


343 


29 


99 


39 


19 


22 


27 


12 


27 


20 


17 


32 


30 


14 


25 


284 


24 


1900 


33 


12 


33 


22 


30 


21 


28 


.23 


41 


71 


. 33 


34 


381 


32 



1880 




28 


20 


17 


17 


29 


26 


24 














81 


40 


55 


65 


42 


51 


46 


73 


69 


46 


56 


49 


73 


665 


55 


82 


64 


50 


64 


59 


56 


55 


52 


64 


67 


63 


62 


73 


729 


61 


83 


70 


63 


83 


82 


86 


78 


70 


60 


44 


63 


66 


108 


873 


73 


84 


80 


68 


93 


89 


59 


no 


85 


81 


77 


68 


73 


75 


958 


80 


85 


59 


78 


50 


62 


61 


74 


91 


93 


103 


99 


91 


85 


946 


79 


86 


70 


82 


62 


37 


58 


50 


58 


61 


57 


65 


58 


63 


721 


60 


87 


59 


37 


64 


37 


38 


54 


59 


58 


50 


46 


40 


50 


592 


49 


88 


40 


41 


34 


30 


25 


31 


27 


37 


14 


31 


19 


38 


367 


31 


89 


22 


23 


44 


24 


18 


16 


22 


15 


17 


19 


23 


12 


235 


20 


90 


ti 


14 


22 


17 


II 


24 


23 


26 


22 


37 


37 


48 


291 


24 


91 


59 


45 


45 


13 


59 


63 


82 


53 


35 


82 


43 


72 


651 


54 


92 


62 


58 


71 


71 


94 


87 


89 


73 


62 


38 


45 


65 


815 


68 


93 


52 


43 


79 


83 


53 


49 


50 


53 


52 


6[ 


45 


51 


671 


56 



NO. 4 TEMTERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 405 



Jahr 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


1 
Summe 


Mittel 


1892 


40 


42 


54 


54 


56 


67 


75 


62 


87 


67 


67 


58 


729 


61 


93 


55 


68 


55 


67 


37 


40 


43 


70 


54 


5t 


31 


47 


618 


52 


94 


53 


54 


48 


43 


42 


45 


63 


49 


46 


39 


36 


40 


558 


47 


95 


30 


21 


3t 


35 


33 


34 


26 


42 


44 


44 


28 


34 


40a 


34 


96 


39 


37 


33 


25 


33 


43 


48 


56 


47 


55 


35 


30 


481 


40 


97 


4t 


54 


54 


53 


41 


48 


40 


47 


35 


45 


52 


48 


558 


46 


98 


38 


42 


34 


31 


24 


28 


22 


39 


43 


41 


34 


21 


397 


33 


99 


29 


29 


18 


29 


25 


27 


24 


14 


22 


20 


9 


9 


255 


21 


1900 


ri 


13 


15 


26 


22 


8 


9 


12 


12 


13 


9 


13 


163 


14 


OI 


4 


10 


6 


3 


9 


II 


14 


13 


8 


2 


3 


4 


87 


7 


02 


5 


4 


4 


3 


9 


6 


4 


5 


4 


I 


I 


3 


49 


4 


03 


5 


8 


8 


12 


15 


II 


14 


13 


II 


13 


16 


16 


142 


12 


04 


2t 


II 


36 


23 


23 


31 


36 


42 


22 


30 


24 


28 


327 


27 


05 


28 


41 


44 


24 


32 


28 


^3 


36 


33 


20 


37 


9 


354 


30 


06 


20 


41 


57 


42 


33 


32 


24 


18 


4 


3 


7 


13 


294 


25 


07 


44 


36 


57 


50 


28 


23 


49 


47 


55 


40 


42 


51 


522 


44 


08 


35 


33 


60 


43 


43 


41 


31 


29 


'7 


16 


42 


26 


416 


35 


09 


33 


40 


49 


ai 


2 [ 


29 


di 


37 


49 


39 


43 


36 


439 


37 


10 


28 


32 


50 


40 


22 


24 


29 


18 


23 


19 


17 


13 


315 


26 


II 


16 


18 


15 


18 


13 


20 


15 


22 


12 


12 


14 


9 


184 


15 


12 


4 


II 


II 


13 


6 


la 


13 


19 


17 


4 


14 


13 


137 


II 


13 


6 


6 


13 


16 


20 


9 


8 


6 


8 


3 


If 


II 


117 


10 


14 


23 


28 


13 


24 


24 


29 


41 


39 


33 


52 


57 


61 


424 


35 



EXPLANATION OF PLATES 

Plates 1-14. — Surface temperature in degrees Centigrade of the 2° longitude 
fields for all of our observational region for each year 1898 to 1910 
and each decade group (February 3 to March 4, plates 1-7, March 15 
to April 13, plates 8-14). The small numbers at the top on the left 
for each temperature gives the number of observations in each 2° 
longitude field and in each decade group. The isotherms for 8°, 10°, 
12°, 13°, 14°, 15°, 16° C. are indicated. 

Plate i, figure i. — The mean temperatures for the first decade group (Feb- 
ruary 3 to March 4) for the years 1900 to 1910 in the 2° longitude 
fields of the shipping route Channel to New York and in the 10° 
longitude fields of the region Portugal to the Azores. The arrows 
give the mean isobar directions and mean strength of the air pres- 
sure gradients for the 10° longitude fields in the years 1898 to 1908. 

Plate 7, figure i. — The mean temperatures for the second decade group 
(March 15 to April 13) for the years 1900 to 1910 in the 2° longitude 
fields of the shipping route Channel to New York. The arrows give 
the mean isobar directions and the mean intensity of the air pressure 
gradients for the 10° fields in the years 1898 to 1908. 

Plate 15. — The charts : fields and stations. The separate numbers give the 

fields with the surface temperatures. The numbers surrounded by 

circles give fields or stations with air temperatures. 

Fields 1-6: The six 10° longitude fields of the route Channel to New York. 

Fields 7-18: The twelve fields of 10° longitude and 2° latitude in the 

region between Portugal and 40° west longitude. 
Fields 19-20: The two Dutch 10° squares. 

Fields 21-24: The four 10° longitude fields for the Danish observations 
between 0° and 40° west longitude and 50° and 60° north latitude. 



4o6 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 70 



Station 31 : 
Station 32 : 
Station 33 : 
Station 34: 
Station 35 : 



Fields 25-28 : Fields of the Danish observations between 60° north latitude 

and Iceland. 
Field 29: Field of the Danish observations between Scotland and o** 

west longitude and between 56° and 57° north latitude. 
Station 30 : Horns Reef. 
; Vyl. 

Gjedser Reef. 

Average of Anholt-Knob and Laoso-Trindel. 

Skagens Reef. 

Torungen Lighthouse, 58° 25' north latitude, 8° 48' east 
longitude. 
Station 36: Helliso Lighthouse, 60° 45' north latitude, 4° 43' east longi- 
tude. 
Station 37 : Ona Lighthouse, 62° 52' north latitude, 6° 33' east longitude. 
Station 38: Nodoerne Lighthouse, 64° 38' north latitude, 10° 33' east 

longitude. 
Station 39: Andenes Lighthouse, 69° 20' north latitude, 16° 8' east longi- 
tude. 
Station 40: Gjesvaer Telegraph Station, 71° 6'. north latitude, 25° 22.' 

east longitude. 
Station 41 : Thorshavn, Faeroe Islands. 

Papey (Iceland). 

Vestmanna-Eyar. 

Stykkisholm. 

Grimsey. 

Air temperature for all Iceland (the mean for Reykjavik, 
Akureyti, Stykkisholm, Grimsey, Berufjord, Vestmannaeyar) . 
Station 47: Upernivik (Greenland). 

Godthaab. 

Ivigtut. 

Nanortalik. 

Angmagsalik. 

Vardo. 

Sudvaranger. 

Alten. 

Tromso. 

Bodo. 

Bronnoy. 

Roros. 

Christiania. 

All Norway (22 meteorological principal stations). 

Sumburgh Head (Shetland Islands). 

Stornoway (Hebrides). 

Average of Laudale and Glasgow. 

Average of Valencia, Blacksod Point and Mackree Castle 



Station 42 : 
Station 43 : 
Station 44: 
Station 45 : 
Station 46: 



Station 48: 
Station 49: 
Station 50: 
Station 51 : 
Station 52 : 
Station 53 : 
Station 54: 
Station 55 : 
Station 56: 
Station 57 : 
Station 58: 
Station 59: 
Station 60: 
Station 61 : 
Station 62 : 
Station 63 : 
Station 64: 



(Ireland). 



Station 65 
Station 66 
Station 67 



Scilly Islands. 

Average for Liverpool, Shields, Oxford, London. 

Hamburg. 



NO. 4 TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC 407 



Station 68 


: Paris (Meteorological Institute). 


Station 69 


: Brest. 


Station 70 


: Biarritz. 


Station 71 


: Madrid. 


Station 72 


: Coimbra. 


Station 'jz 


Lisbon. 


Station 74 


: San Fernando. 


Station 75 : 


Ponta Delgada. 


Station ^6 


: Horta. 


Station '}'] 


: Funchal (Madeira). 


Station 78 


: Las Palmas (Canary Islands). 


Station 79 


: St. Louis. 


Station 80 


: Dakar. 


Station 81 


: Kayes. 


Station 82 


Arequipa, Peru (16° 25' south latitude). 


Station 83 


: Cayenne. 


Station 84 


: Fort de France. 


Station 85 


: St. Croix. 


Station 86 


: Port au Prince (Haiti). 


Station 87 


: Bermuda. 


Station 88 


: Key West. 


Station 89 


: Jacksonville. 


Station 90 


: New Orleans. 


Station 91 


: Galveston. 


Station 92 


: Knoxville. 


" Station 93 


: Mean of Washington, Baltimore, and Philadelphia. 


Station 94 


: Atlantic City. 


Station 95 


: New York. 


Station 96 


: Boston. 


Station 97 


: Eastport. 


Station 98 


: Halifax. 


Station 99 


: White Head. 


Station 100: Sydney. 


Station loi : St. Johns. 


Station 102 ; Cape Norman. 


Station 103 : Belle Isle. N 


Station 104: Cape Magdalena. 


Station 105 : Chatham. 


Station 106: Anticosti. 


Station 107: Father Point (Quebec). 


Station 108: Quebec. 


Station 109: Montreal. 


Station no: Ottawa. 


Station in: Toronto. 


Station 112: St. Louis. 


Station 113: Duluth. 


Plate 15. — Isopleth diagrams below : Mean temperatures of the surface in 


the 4° longitude fields of the shipping course Channel to New York 


for ea 


ch decade (I-VII) in the time interval 1900 to 1910. 



408 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. /O 

Plates 16-41. — The charts. The separate numbers give the anomalies of the 
surface temperatures in tenths of a degree Centigrade. The numbers 
in circles give the anomalies of the air temperatures in tenths of a 
degree Centigrade. The heavy verticle numbers give positive anoma- 
lies, the inclined weak numbers give negative anomalies. The heavy- 
rings indicate positive, the weak negative anomalies. 

Plates 16-40. — The curve-diagrams at the bottom on the left side. For ex- 
planation see the text. 

Plates 15-41. The isopleth-diagrams at the bottom on the right side give the 
anomalies of the surface temperatures in tenths of a degree Centi- 
grade for each decade (I-VII) for the 4° longitude fields of the 
shipping course Channel to New York. The heavy vertical numbers 
give the positive anomalies, the lighter inclined numbers negative 
anomalies. 

Plates 42 and 43. — Pressure gradient-curves and temperature-curves for the 
10° longitude fields of the shipping course Channel to New York (see 
also plate 15, 1-6) for the first decade group February 3 to March 4, 
and for the second decade group March 15 to April 13. Curves B: 
Anomalies of the relative numbers of the air pressure gradients for 
the months January to March and the mean for January and February 
(strong dotted lines). Curve W: Anomalies of the surface tempera- 
ture for February 3 to March 4, and for March 15 to April 13. 
Curves L : Anomalies of the air temperature for the same time as 
for W. W-L: Anomalies of the difference surface temperature 
minus air temperature for the same time as for W, For each tempera- 
ture curve for each decade group mean values are given for the 
series of years 1900-1910 under the headings W, L, and W-L. 

Plates 44 and 45. — Pressure gradient curves and temperature curves for the 
southerly region Portugal to the Azores for the first decade group 
February 3 to March 4. Explanation of these curves is the same as 
for plates 42 and 43. 

Plate 46. — Air pressure gradient curves and temperature curves for the four 
10° longitude fields of the Danish observational region for February 
and for March 16 to April 15. Explanation of the curves is the same 
as for plates 42 and 43. The curves L in the two lower diagrams give 
the mean air temperature for Stornoway (Hebrides), Deerness) 
(Orkney), and Sumburgh Head (Shetland). 

Plates 47 and 48. — Air pressure gradient curves (B) and temperature curves 
(W water, L air) for various stations on the Norwegian coast. 




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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 16 



F ELDER und STAT ION EN 
der benutzten Obseruationen 




MITTEL = Temperaiuren der Oberf/ache der l/ier = Longengrad-' 
FELDER fur Jede Dekcide Lm Zeifraum /9O0-I9I0. 
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5-2 /02 /3-2 13-1 JI-8 //■/ /^S /i-9 15-1 113 I/-8 



5-9 //•/ /3-J 133 12-2 //C /4-« 13-5 12 S 120 //-a 

Jl\ 6-2 /0-3 13-5 13-6 12-2 lOl Pt-S 13-8 155 /2« 120 

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 16 




1898 

FEBRUAR 

3S' *0' ''5' 50' 55* 



<kc- bj* |70' !B3' 



A/£iV YORK-PORTUGAL 
1898 FEBRUAR 





€0 


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1898 FEBRUAR 

so so iO JO 20 /<7 , , 
" -SS" -iS' -39' -23° -ID'W. 




NEWYORH-HANAL 
1898 MARZ- APR 

60 Sa iiO 30 „ 20^^ 10,^ 
" -fg -i>3 -39 -iS -1 9 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 17 












1898 
















70-66' 


\6i-S2 


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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 18 




1899 

FEBRUAH 



NEW YORK-PORTUGAL 
1899 FEBRUAR 

60 ^ SO „ 40 ,30,20 „ /&_ 

-rao ^coo .LO^ -xn^ -oo* -lO' 



NEW YORK -/(ANAL 
1899 FEBRUAR 

60 SO „V) „ X,^ 20 „ /^^ 





NEW YORK- K ANAL 
1899 MARZ-APR. 

' -sr -w' -.w -ay -f w. 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 19 



1899 

UARZ 




1899 



27 /6 7 5 6 / zX 4 



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3« 


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VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 20 




^' ^"0 



fi/£W YORK-PORTUGAL 
1900 FEBRUAR 

» 50 40 JO eo w ^ -^ 
as -jy -*g* -39* -29' -i^'Wh 




NEW YORH-HANAL 
mOFJBRUAR 




NEW yORH-KANAL 
J90Q /MRZ-APR. 

-CB' S3- -M- -"• -!»• -fe'WIl 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL 70, NO. 4, PL. 21 




1900 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 22 




NEW YORK-PORTUSAL 
1901 FEBRUAR 




NEW YORK- KANAL 
I90J FEBRUAR 

^ K^ ^ ^ so 



NEW YORH-HANAL 
1901 MARZ-APR. 

-y ^9- -|9- -39' -^' -yKL 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 23 



1901 

MARZ 




I 

I 

E 



1901 

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. /O, NO. 4, PL. 24 





1902 

FEBRUAR 

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(00 -^ r3W4 / V 

S- 60- X / 




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1902 FEBRUAR 

^ *_ «J, ■>" ^ '" ■•ATT 

— -59° -«/• -J>° -23' -I9 'WL 




N£W YORH- HANAL 
J90§F^Rg/\R,,^ , 



NEW YORK- HANAL 
ig02MARZ-APR 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 25 




1902 

7a-66''\66-62'\S2-SS'\Se~S-S-'iS4^-Sa'\S(:>-'M'\'^6-/l-2''\4f2-3a''\^8-J^''\3'y-30''\30-26''\Z6-22'>\22-/S''\/a-/^''\/4^-/S<> 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 26 



1903 

FEBRUAR 




NEW YORK-PORTUGAL 
1903 FEBRUAR 

a *, W, 30 20 JO 

ss -•a -33 -ee -i9 °rr 




NEW YORK- HAN AL 
1903 FEBRUAR 

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NEW YORK- HAN AL 
1903 MARZ-APR. 

to ^ SQ ^ SO SO to 



r -»' -r i>- -?y ;y; S. 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 27 




1903 





70-66' 


|6i5-tf2'' 


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li-S-^*" 


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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLtCllOMS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 28 



1904 

OS 

FEBRUAR ^ 

o„« 40* AS' 50° 55* 60° 




w.^^;^ 
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NEW YORK P0RTU6AL 

-jy -59' ^%- ^9' -29° -78 'TVL 



yVfkK YORK-HANAL 
190^ FEBRUAR. 



NEW YORH-HANAL 
1904 MARZ-APR. 






SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL- 28 



1904 

M/iRZ 




X' 130° I25' BO* hs' rio° 5 

















1904 
















70-66»\66-6Zo\ 


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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 30 



1905 

FEBRUAR 




NEW YORK -PORTUGAL 
1905 FEBRUAR 



I JEW YORH-KANAL 
1905 FEBRUAR 





NEW YORH-KANAL 
1905 MAR2- APR. 

SO ^ SO ^ ^ SC 20 10 _,,- 

-ffg" -jj* -4q' '^^ -gj- ~i,rW.L 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 31 




1905 

7l^-66'\st-62'\6Z-S6'\Sa-Si^Si^-S0'iS0-^'\^-y^2'i^2-38<\38-3¥\j*'^50'\30-26'\26-2Z'\2Z-/S''\/3-M/<f-/0<' 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 32 




NEW YORK PORTUGAL 
1906 FEBRUAR 



NEW YORH-HANAL 
1906 FEBRUAR 



NEW YORH-HANAL 
1906 MARZ-APR. 






SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTION 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 33 




1906 

MARZ 



25° lao' \lS' flO* 5 



1906 



26 7 \7 K^ 10 10 17 10 /2 ^O- 

18 8 14 9 2 8 8 6 I 7 /J 

3 22 l«) 14 12 





29 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 34 




NEW YORK- PORTUSA L 
1907 FEBRUAR 



NEW YORK- KAN A L 
1907 FEBRUAR 



60 so m 3D 20 10 



NEW YORK- HANAL 
1907 MARZ- APR. 




-M- -Jg° -e9° -19'W. 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 35 




1907 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 36 




N^W Y0RK-R0RTU6AL 
I90SFEBRUAR 




NEW YORK- KAN A L 
1908 FEBRUAR 




NEW YORK -HAN A L 
1908 MARZ- APR . 

60 SO W SO 20 10 .„. 
-tV -S9 -«y -39' -29' -19'W. 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 37 




1908 



2 V /V y^ \^3^/ 4 8 II 

S 12 14 7 3 10 13 

II (T) 30 22 12 18 13 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 




NEW YDRH-P0RTU6AL 
1910 FEBRUAR 

'{i so M> 30 ZO 10 

59' -ur -M'-|S1_-W'W^ 




NEW YORK-HMAL 
1910 FEBRUAR 

60 SO ■W SO 20 10 ... 

-fiS" -S9' -49- -}$• -ZS" -ISfW 

"7- ' ' r-____ 




• NEW YORK- KANAL 

1910 MARZ-APR. 
eo so -tc so CO 10 







■so- 



FEER. 
B 



^— • 



-r 






U'-L 



SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4. PL. 39 




1909 

7a-SS'\eS-S2<>]62-Sa'\Sd-S4^'\S^-SO'\S£i-^i^4'6-4-Zo\iZ-38oi36-3^34^-3i;'i30-2i''l26-21'>\2Z-/S'\/g-/<>''\/^-/a<> 




6 \ tB 

« >> 2 16 II 15 3 

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6 


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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



vol . 70, NO. 4, PL. 40 



1910 

FEBRUAR 




NEW YORK-PORTUGAL 

1910 FEBRUAR 



so «> 30 20 10 




NEW YORK -/(ANAL 

1910 FEBRUAR 




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1910 MARZ -APR. 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 41 



MAfiZ 




1910 




SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 

J FEBR.'A-MARZ. 60-69'yv. 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 42 




3 FEBRr-'^MARZ iO-i9'W. 

99 1300 1 2 3» 5 67 8 S ID 



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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 44 



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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 46 



93 1900 I23'i56789l 




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95 1300 I 2 3 "f 5 S 7 3 9 II 




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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 48 



FEBRUAR 

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1900 1 2 3 » 5 6 7 8 9 M IO 




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VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 47 



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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 



VOL. 70, NO. 4, PL. 48 



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